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ATOM (German Edition)

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Furthermore, combined with the Deutsche Physik movement, the damaging effects were intensified and prolonged. The consequences to physics in Germany and its subfield of nuclear physics were multifaceted. An immediate consequence upon passage of the law was that it produced both quantitative and qualitative losses to the physics community. Britain and the United States were often the recipients of the talent which left Germany. Max Planck , the father of quantum theory , had been right in assessing the consequences of National Socialist policies.

During the meeting, Planck told Hitler that forcing Jewish scientists to emigrate would mutilate Germany and the benefits of their work would go to foreign countries. Hitler responded with a rant against Jews and Planck could only remain silent and then take his leave. The National Socialist regime would only come around to the same conclusion as Planck in the 6 July meeting regarding the future agenda of the Reichsforschungsrat RFR, Reich Research Council , but by then it was too late. The politicization can be illustrated with the conflict which evolved when a replacement for Arnold Sommerfeld was sought in view of his emeritus status.

The conflict involved one of the prominent Uranverein participants, Werner Heisenberg. On 1 April Arnold Sommerfeld , Heisenberg's teacher and doctoral advisor at the University of Munich , achieved emeritus status. However, Sommerfeld stayed on as his own temporary replacement during the selection process for his successor, which took until 1 December The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty's selection and that of both the Reichserziehungsministerium REM, Reich Education Ministry and the supporters of Deutsche Physik.

German nuclear weapons program

In , the Munich Faculty drew up a candidate list to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich. There were three names on the list: The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with Heisenberg as their first choice.

However, supporters of Deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates and the battle commenced, dragging on for over four years. During this time, Heisenberg came under vicious attack by the supporters of Deutsche Physik. Heisenberg had been lecturing to his students about the theory of relativity , proposed by the Jewish scientist Albert Einstein.

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In the editorial, Himmler called Heisenberg a "White Jew" who should be made to "disappear. Heisenberg fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler, in an attempt to get a resolution to this matter and regain his honour.

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At one point, Heisenberg's mother visited Himmler's mother to help bring a resolution to the affair. The two women knew each other as a result of Heisenberg's maternal grandfather and Himmler's father being rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club. In the letter to Heydrich, Himmler said Germany could not afford to lose or silence Heisenberg as he would be useful for teaching a generation of scientists. To Heisenberg, Himmler said the letter came on recommendation of his family and he cautioned Heisenberg to make a distinction between professional physics research results and the personal and political attitudes of the involved scientists.

Overall, the settlement of the Heisenberg affair was a victory for academic standards and professionalism. Politicization of the academic community, combined with the impact of the Deutsche Physik movement and other policies, such as drafting physicists to fight in the war had the net effect of bringing about a missing generation of physicists.

At the close of the war, physicists born between and were almost nonexistent. They had the classification uk not uk , indispensable and not even Kurt Diebner , managing director of the KWIP, could stop their call-up. It was not until that Werner Osenberg, head of the planning board at the Reichsforschungsrat RFR, Reich Research Council , was able to initiate calling back engineers and scientists from the front to work on research categorized as kriegsentscheidend decisive for the war effort.

By the end of the war, the number recalled had reached 15, Hartek believed that if Hertz had a leading position "the first working reactor in the world would have been built in Germany, and perhaps the thermal diffusion process would have been achieved". However, in order to do this they were, as were many scientists, caught between autonomy and accommodation. During the period in which Deutsche Physik was gaining prominence, a foremost concern of the great majority of scientists was to maintain autonomy against political encroachment.

This was the case of Finkelnburg. The petition, a letter and six attachments, [70] addressed the atrocious state of physics instruction in Germany, which Ramsauer concluded was the result of politicization of education. In light of the implications of nuclear weapons, German nuclear fission and related technologies were singled out for special attention.

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In addition to exploitation, denial of these technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. This typically meant getting to these resources first, which to some extent put the Soviets at a disadvantage in some geographic locations easily reached by the Western Allies, even if the area was destined to be in the Soviet zone of occupation by the Potsdam Conference.

At times all parties were heavy-handed in their pursuit and denial to others. The best known US denial and exploitation effort was Operation Paperclip , a broad dragnet that encompassed a wide range of advanced fields, including jet and rocket propulsion, nuclear physics, and other developments with military applications such as infrared technology. Operations directed specifically towards German nuclear fission were Operation Alsos and Operation Epsilon , the latter being done in collaboration with the British.

In lieu of the codename for the Soviet operation it is referred to by Oleynikov as the Russian "Alsos". Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the later years of the war.

This move allowed the Americans to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research. The only section of the institute which remained in Berlin was the low-temperature physics section, headed by Ludwig Bewilogua, who was in charge of the exponential uranium pile.

American Alsos teams carrying out Operation BIG raced through Baden-Wurttemburg near war's end in the spring of , uncovering, collecting, and selectively destroying Uranverein elements, including capturing a prototype reactor at Haigerloch and records, heavy water, and uranium ingots at Tailfingen. Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte as members of the Uranverein [81] were picked up by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon: Also, incarcerated was Max von Laue , although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project.

Goudsmit, the chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, thought von Laue might be beneficial to the postwar rebuilding of Germany and would benefit from the high level contacts he would have in England. Adding to the capabilities in the final stages of metallic uranium production were the strengths of the Degussa corporation's capabilities in metals production.

The G-1 experiment [85] performed at the HWA testing station, under the direction of Kurt Diebner , had lattices of 6, uranium oxide cubes about 25 tons , in the nuclear moderator paraffin.

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Work of the American Operation Alsos teams, in November , uncovered leads which took them to a company in Paris that handled rare earths and had been taken over by the Auergesellschaft. This, combined with information gathered in the same month through an Alsos team in Strasbourg , confirmed that the Oranienburg plant was involved in the production of uranium and thorium metals. Since the plant was to be in the future Soviet zone of occupation and the Red Army's troops would get there before the Allies, General Leslie Groves , commander of the Manhattan Project , recommended to General George Marshall that the plant be destroyed by aerial bombardment, in order to deny its uranium production equipment to the Soviets.

On 15 March , B Flying Fortress bombers of the Eighth Air Force dropped 1, tons of high-explosive and tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. Riehl visited the site with the Soviets and said that the facility was mostly destroyed. Riehl also recalled long after the war that the Soviets knew precisely why the Americans had bombed the facility—the attack had been directed at them rather than the Germans. Bopp did not get along with them and described the initial French policy objectives towards the KWIP as exploitation, forced evacuation to France, and seizure of documents and equipment.

The French occupation policy was not qualitatively different from that of the American and Soviet occupation forces, it was just carried out on a smaller scale.

Atom, (German edition)

In order to put pressure on Bopp to evacuate the KWIP to France, the French Naval Commission imprisoned him for five days and threatened him with further imprisonment if he did not cooperate in the evacuation. At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and "requisition" equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the Soviet atomic bomb project. These teams were composed of scientific staff members, in NKVD officer's uniforms, from the bomb project's only laboratory, Laboratory No.

Georgij Nikolaevich Flerov had arrived earlier, although Kikoin did not recall a vanguard group. German physicists who worked on the Uranverein and were sent to the Soviet Union to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project included: Its success has been attributed to meeting all four of the following conditions: Even with all four of these conditions in place the Manhattan Project succeeded only after the war in Europe had been brought to a conclusion. For the Manhattan Project, the second condition was met on 9 October or shortly thereafter. Germany for a long time was thought to have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb.

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