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Double anterior stylopodia fail to regenerate regardless of the length of time elapsed between making the construct and amputation. Double posterior stylopodia, however, lose regenerative capacity in proportion to healing time. There was no effect of healing time on either double anterior or double posterior zeugopodia. Krasner and Bryant also did not detect any effect of healing time on double posterior zeugopodia of adult newt limbs.

Secondary and tertiary amputations of these regenerates resulted in expanded digit numbers. So far, there has been no satisfactory explanation as to why healing time or age has these effects. Goss b showed that anterior or posterior half zeugopodia regenerated half limbs, but regenerated complete limbs after removal of one half of the internal limb tissues while retaining a full circumference of skin. Wigmore and Holder replaced half the limb skin of the stylopodium or zeugopodium with head skin, which does not support limb regeneration. Stylopodia with their posterior half skin replaced with head skin behaved like anterior half limbs, regenerating a high proportion of single anterior skeletal elements.

Replacement of anterior, dorsal, and ventral half skin of stylopodia with head skin resulted in only minor defects in skeletal pattern, but there were ventral muscle deficiencies after replacement of dorsal and ventral half skin. No defects were observed after replacement of any zeugopodial half circumference of limb skin with head skin. Maden and Mustafa b performed a series of experiments in which the skin was made symmetrical with respect to the internal tissues of the limb. Theoretically, since the regenerate cartilage is derived by transdifferentiation of dermal fibroblasts, the cartilage in these double dorsal and ventral regenerates should be symmetrical as well.

Retinoids are able to reprogram the positional identity of blastema cells, as first discovered in the s by Niazi and colleagues in regenerating toad tadpole limbs see Niazi, , for a review. Retinol palmitate mixed into the water caused the formation of multiple regenerates proximalized in the PD axis. Two other methods of retinoid delivery have also been used: The effect is local to cells at the amputation level.

A proximalized supernumerary limb S arose where tissue of the grafted anterior half met posterior tissue. RA proximalizes these regenerates and ventralizes positional identity, as shown by the normal pattern of extensor muscles on the dorsal side d and flexor muscles on the ventral side v. One half was fore limb, the other half was hind limb. A fore limb FL was regenerated by the forelimb half and a hind limb HL by the hindlimb half.

Their general finding was that alterations of the polar end group of RA to produce esters or the alcohol or aldehyde forms of RA abolish the ability to proximalize positional identity, whereas alterations of the ring or side chain to produce the derivatives TTNPB and arotinoid greatly enhance this ability. These retinoids are also more toxic, however, and thus RA has become the tool of choice to reprogram positional identity.

The fact that RA can proximalize positional identities of blastema cells argues that it might be an important component of the molecular mechanism that patterns the blastema. This idea is supported by several lines of evidence. The functions of three of these isoforms have been determined by constructing chimeric RARs with ligand binding domains substituted with the ligand binding domain of a thyroid hormone TH receptor. The chimeric receptors and a retinoic acid response element—reporter gene construct were then cotransfected into cultured blastema cells, activating target genes.

The effects of RA on positional identity in the AP and DV axes were revealed when zeugopodial halves were amputated and treated with RA at the same dose that causes maximum proximalization of pattern in normal limbs. Distally amputated control anterior and dorsal half zeugopodia regenerated as half limbs.

These results showed that RA not only proximalizes positional identity of blastema cells in amputated normal limbs, it simultaneously posteriorizes and ventralizes positional identity. The fact that amputated normal limbs proximalized to the level of the girdle arise from the anterodorsal quadrant of the distal zeugopodial stump is consistent with this conclusion, because this is the only location at which cells with A, P, D, and V positional identities and an AP boundary are available to interact. Control double anterior regenerates formed an average of two digits.

The regeneration of double posterior limbs treated with progressively higher doses of RA was inhibited. Presumably, similar results would be obtained with double dorsal and ventral limbs, although this has not been verified. In normal limbs, an initial blastema cell accumulation is formed but then disappears, followed by an extended period of histolysis proximally compared to untreated controls.

The effect of RA on other proteases has not been investigated. Similar histological changes have been confirmed and changes to the skin revealed by additional electron microscope observations made of regenerating limbs of axolotls treated by immersion in solutions of retinol palmitate Scadding, A Normal fore limb blastema, no RA treatment. Arrowhead indicates proximal high density region of blastema cells. White line, transition between prospective girdle G and the free limb FL.

Arrow indicates basement membrane reforming beneath the epidermis between the blastemas, but not under the rest of the blastemal epidermis. After Kim and Stocum b. Interestingly, between the twin blastemas a small area of basement membrane was reconstituted, but not under the blastema AEC, suggesting differences in MMP expression between these two regions. In the three or more decades since experiments on half and double half limbs were carried out, no further work on them has been done. The molecular biology of limb regeneration has advanced rapidly, however, and it would be instructive to repeat these experiments assessing the expression of ECM molecules, proteases, signaling molecules, and blastema cell molecular markers.

For example, what does the expression pattern of proteases Shh , Fgf8 and Hoxa and d genes look like in the blastemas of regenerating double half limbs treated with RA? There are several models of distalization after simple amputation through the upper stylopodium Fig. Repetition of this process restores the complete normal neighbor map.

After amputation through the stylopodium, each repetition would specify stylopodial PD values until the elbow is reached, whereupon there would be a split into two circles of identities for the radius and ulna that would continue the process until further splits took place into circles that represent autopodial elements. It is important to understand that the radial values in the planar depiction of the model upper part of Fig. The interactions between migrating cells after amputation would couple mitosis with distalization. Numbers represent angular values.

Bottom, the radial values telescoped out as each of the radial values is realized. C Regeneration of the segment of amputation distal stylopodium, red , driven by a high level of RA red arrow that drops off distally to interact with a mitotic timing mechanism to specify remaining PD positional identities. D Intercalary averaging mechanism.

The first step is intercalation of the intermediate positional identity; successive intercalations complete the PD sequence. D After Maden Higher concentrations of the morphogen specify more distal positional identities. The concentration of morphogen is lowest at the earliest stages of regeneration and will specify the most proximal structure to be regenerated. Once specified, these cells now ramp up their production of AECMF, resulting in production of a higher concentration of morphogen by the AEC that specifies the next more distal structure, and so on.

Combined with the polar coordinate model, bootstrapping gives a physical mechanism for assignation of progressively more distal positional identities. Nerves are not involved in establishing PD axial patterning, since aneurogenic limbs of reversed PD polarity regenerate distally in the same way as reversed innervated limbs Wallace, Another mechanism of PD pattern generation Fig. A factor s contributed by the AEC provides an environment within which an autonomous timing mechanism specifies the positional identities of the zeugopodium and autopodium.

Clearly, there is much more to learn about blastema patterning from investigation of these phenomena. These three models view the specification of PD positional identities after simple amputation as taking place serially, in proximal to distal order. The proximal boundary is the fibroblast positional identity of the amputation level.

Confrontation of the two boundaries initiates an averaging cascade of intercalation. The first averaging event leads to intercalation of the positional identity halfway between the autopodium and the level of amputation.

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There are now three positional identities, and progressive mitosis and intercalary averaging continue to fill in the nearest neighbor map. The assumption would have to be made that serial expression of these genes does not adequately reflect the actual patterning mechanism itself, raising the speculation that expression of these transcription factors could be the result rather than the cause of the patterning mechanism.

Intercalary deletions were the result when unirradiated distal blastemas were grafted to irradiated proximal stumps Maden, b. Normal distal zeugopodial blastemas of axolotls grafted to a double anterior stylopodium evoke intercalary regeneration of a symmetrical distal stylopodium plus a single symmetrical element formed by the midline fusion of two anterior zeugopodial elements Fig.

Normal distal blastemas grafted to double posterior stylopodia more often evoke intercalation of a symmetrical distal stylopodium plus separated double posterior zeugopodial elements Fig. In both cases, the graft develops as a normal autopodium while evoking supernumerary digits where anterior tissue confronts posterior tissue. A double anterior zeugopodial blastema grafted to a double anterior stylopodium Fig. A Normal wrist blastema homografted from a dark axolotl to the double anterior stylopodium of a white animal.

A symmetrical double femur and tibia was intercalated from the host. B Normal wrist blastema of a white axolotl autografted to the ipsilateral double posterior stylopodium of the hindlimb. Primary and supernumerary sets of basipodial elements were regenerated.

Mechanisms of urodele limb regeneration

C Double anterior wrist blastema homografted from a dark axolotl to the double anterior stylopodium of a white axolotl. The graft formed two carpals arrows and a single digit. A symmetrical distal femur F and tibia T were intercalated from the host stump. After Stocum b , In contrast to what happens after simple amputation of a double anterior stylopodium, the intermediate blastema cells ignore their similarity in anterior positional identity and respond only to the discontinuity in PD identities between graft and host levels.

Thus the mechanism of PD outgrowth and patterning seems to be different in double anterior stylopodia regenerating after simple amputation as opposed to intercalation and, by extension, between the regeneration of normal limbs after simple amputation versus intercalation when distal blastemas are grafted proximally.

Such geometrical influences on limb regeneration have not been explored. We cannot rule out, however, that there needs to be a DV differential for distalization to take place. This possibility might be tested by constructing stylopodia and zeugopodia that are double dorsal or double ventral, as well as double anterior, to see the effect on regeneration after simple amputation or after grafting double dorsal or double ventral blastemas to double dorsal and ventral limb stumps.

The averaging model of Maden , however, can account for intercalary regeneration in all these constructs because, in this model, the basal positional identity of the graft can act as a distal boundary confronting a proximal boundary represented by proximal host level blastema cells. It may be, however, that the urodele limb has multiple mechanisms of replacing structural loss and that one or another of these mechanisms predominates according to the type of tissue rearrangement experienced.

Thus, elements of all the models described may be in play depending on the experimental circumstances and when combined would provide a framework for blastema patterning that explains most of the experimental observations. As outlined above, experiments on half and double half limbs have revealed differential contributions of limb halves to the blastema. Maden and Mustafa analyzed the cellular contributions of graft and stump to the four classes of supernumeraries evoked by grafting APDV inverted triploid blastemas to diploid limb stumps.

Each class of supernumerary was composed of a different percentage of graft and host cells, indicating the relative contribution from each. Not all the results were explainable by mosaic cellular contribution, however. These results suggest a model in which both mosaic contributions to the blastema and intercalation to fill in gaps are at work. We must also consider the ability of blastema cells to sort out according to position as a factor in the final anatomy of regenerates.

The early limb regeneration blastema can be viewed as an in vivo organoid that gives rise to exactly those limb parts that were amputated. Put another way, is the early blastema a blank slate with regard to its developmental potency, or is its development restricted to its prospective significance? While the positional identity of blastema cells can be manipulated by RA, the question of how the pattern of the manipulated cells is organized remains the same. Studies conducted from the s to the s reported that young limb blastemas grafted ectopically failed to develop, whereas older blastemas and young blastemas with stump tissue included in the graft were able to develop normally.

Furthermore, early tail blastemas transplanted to limb stumps and vice versa were reported to develop according to host rather than donor origin, whereas older blastemas or early blastemas with stump tissue always developed according to donor origin. The polarity of regenerates formed by axially reversed early blastemas conformed to that of the host limb stump, whereas older blastemas formed regenerates that maintained their original polarity. Early tail blastemas grafted to the developing embryonic ear region failed to form an otic vesicle Emerson, , but eye cups or otic vesicles grafted into blastemas were reported to induce lens or precartilage otic capsules from blastema cells.

Again, however, the lack of markers in these experiments made it impossible to tell whether these structures were derived from graft or host cells. These kinds of experiments bear repeating using today's transgenic markers. He concluded that cells of the early blastema were intrinsically determined as autopodial structures, whereas the patterning of more proximal elements was determined by stump tissues. However, the carbon particles in this experiment were translocated into the back tissue, suggesting that prospective stylopodial and zeugopodial cells did not survive.

Autonomous development of the blastema. A Medium bud blastemal mesenchyme after 21 days of hanging drop culture. The blastema underwent abortive morphogenesis. Arrows point to dark shadows within the cell mass that reflect the development of a primitive cartilage. B Medium bud forelimb stylopodial blastema autografted to dorsal fin. C Proximal half of a palette stage fore limb stylopodial blastema autografted to the ankle level of the hind limb. The graft dedifferentiated and developed as a fore limb according to its level of origin.

D Normal fore limb stylopodial blastema homografted to the same level of a double posterior hind limb stylopodium. E Medium bud stylopodial blastema homografted from normal limb of a dartk axolotl to the same stylopodial level of the double posterior hind limb of a white axolotl. The graft developed as a normal forelimb. F Double anterior hind limb stylopodial blastema homografted distally to a double anterior hind limb zeugopodium. The blastema developed according to its double anterior stylopodial origin, forming a tapered cone of cartilage arrow.

Later stage blastemas developed with the handedness of origin.

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By contrast, blastemas grafted from a proximal to distal level most often conformed to their host level and developed only autopodial structures, suggesting an inductive activity of the stump. In both cases, histological examination of blastemas over the first few days after grafting suggested substantial survival of blastema cells. Distal to proximal grafts resulted in normal limbs in which the autopodium was formed from the graft and intermediate structures were intercalated by cells from the host.

Intercalation does not take place after proximal to distal grafting, because the polarity of the gap is opposite to the polarity of the stump and graft. Nevertheless, other experiments have led to different conclusions. Such evidence has not been reported. It is clear that blastema growth and distalization and patterning are coupled in some way. The mitotic index of the blastema during the maximum growth phase medium bud through late bud does not change until the start of redifferentiaton in either stylopodial or wrist blastemas, but the period of maximum growth is longer in stylopodial blastemas because there is more pattern to replace Stocum, c.

This result indicates that very few mitotic divisions are required to set up the regenerate pattern, a conclusion backed up by the blastema mapping experiments of Echeverri and Tanaka As to the molecular mechanism of patterning and morphogenesis, little is known. Some of these transcripts and proteins play key roles in transcriptional and proteomic networks that define positional identities, regulate cell division, and regulate cell differentiation.

These ideas have yet to be tested in regenerating limbs, but might be tested by performing single cell transcriptional profiling on small cell clusters from different parts of the blastema. They receive potential support from the regenerating rays of amputated zebrafish fins, which form blastemas at the tip of each ray. Each blastema is composed of several distal to proximal domains: In addition to ECM deposition, convergent extension is likely to be operating during chondrocyte condensation in the limb regeneration blastema to elongate the skeletal elements of the emerging regenerate.

Jazwinska and Sallin have proposed that the selective factor involved is the degree of functional demand placed on the appendages, this being higher in mammals and reflected in more complex structure and thus lower regenerative potential. Furthermore, comparative studies suggest that differences in regenerative capacity and mechanism among species or different developmental stages are influenced by fundamental traits such as body size, aging, and growth pattern Seifert et al.

Research on mammalian appendage regeneration will focus on understanding the roles of oxygen concentration, reactive oxygen species, manipulation of ECM degradation, BMP and Wnt signaling and the source of the cells that form the blastema in the amputated mouse digit. Dedifferentiation was associated with autonomously controlled autophagy that promoted cytoplasmic remodeling, mitochondrial regression, and a bioenergetic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to anaerobic metabolism.

In a series of papers, Levin and colleagues have described the bioelectric code and provided extensive evidence for its existence and function. For example, a number of cell membrane channels associated with eye formation in Xenopus embryos induced eye formation in the gut, tail, or lateral plate mesoderm when misexpressed in these regions.

Monensin is a polyether protein transfer inhibitor isolated from Streptomyces cinnsmonensis. The quest for regenerating a mammalian limb rests on the conviction that mammals retain latent ancestral genetic circuits for regeneration and we need only know how to activate them to regenerate a limb. This idea, however, has been challenged in an interesting way. Therefore we must entertain the possibility that the genes involved in regeneration of anuran limb buds are insufficient for regeneration once the limb has differentiated, making it necessary to confer regenerative power on these and mammalian appendages by genetic engineering.

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Gene sequences key to urodele limb regeneration such as Prod1 plus others that might be lacking could first be introduced in vitro into the genome of anuran limb fibroblasts derived from the desired PD level of the limb. The answer is that we do not know, although we can envision that there will be a series of steps starting with regeneration of a digit. Some believe success is just around the corner. Others think we will never be able to regenerate such a large, complex structure as a limb. Such absolutes have been pronounced many times before and have been proven wrong.

The goal of human limb regeneration will rely on a convergence of ideas and research skills from many different scientific disciplines. In this, regeneration biologists will be racing bioengineers who are designing and building ever more sophisticated prosthetic limbs capable of neural interfaces Carmena et al. Perhaps there will be a convergence of these two approaches to design a hybrid cyborg replacement appendage. Whatever happens, the regenerating urodele limb will continue to be an important source of insights into how we might regenerate human appendages.

I thank Dr Jo Ann Cameron for helpful critiques of an earlier version of the manuscript. Mechanisms of urodele limb regeneration. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Regeneration Oxf v. Published online Dec Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Sep 1; Accepted Oct 4. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract This review explores the historical and current state of our knowledge about urodele limb regeneration. Open in a separate window. Dedifferentiation of myofibers Dismantling of phenotypic structure and function is most visible in the myofibers of regenerating adult newt limbs, but the molecular details of internal structural remodeling in dedifferentiating cells are poorly understood.

Molecular markers of blastema cells In addition to the antigens expressed by the AEC, several antigens specific to mesenchymal blastema cells have been identified by immunochemical methods. Blastema cell migration and accumulation The G 2 arrest of blastema cells indicates that the blastema forms exclusively by migration and aggregation of cells beneath the AEC rather than mitosis. The functional relationship of nerve and AEC: The AEC is dependent on the nerve to express blastema cell mitogens In this hypothesis Stocum, the AEC provides the mitogenic factor s for proliferation but requires neurotrophic factor s to express them.

Interaction between positionally disparate cells—role of Shh and Fgf8 Even in the presence of nerves and the AEC, blastema cells fail to undergo mitosis unless their transverse axial positional identities are sufficiently different to detect a discontinuity in the normal neighbor landscape.

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Genes associated with pattern specification The axial patterns of regenerating tissues are set up during blastema formation and growth, and are associated with the expression of a number of genes that are also expressed during limb bud development. Transverse axial reversal experiments and models of pattern formation 5. AP or DV reversal Reversal of either the AP or DV axis evokes a maximum of two supernumerary limbs where graft tissue confronts host tissue on the anterior and posterior AP reversal sides of the limb, or the dorsal and ventral sides DV reversal.

Models of pattern formation Two prominent models of blastema patterning have been proposed based on how well they predict the number, location, and handedness of these supernumeraries. Regeneration of half and double half limbs The results of amputating half Fig. Half limbs The creation of half stylopodia by irradiation or surgical deletion has shown that the posterior half of the stylopodium has the potential to regenerate a whole limb, whereas the anterior half is able to regenerate an anterior half zeugopodium. Double half limbs Double anterior or posterior half zeugopodia are made by splitting the left and right limb between the two zeugopodial skeletal elements and exchanging the posterior and anterior halves.

Skin fibroblasts play the major role in regenerate patterning Goss b showed that anterior or posterior half zeugopodia regenerated half limbs, but regenerated complete limbs after removal of one half of the internal limb tissues while retaining a full circumference of skin. Retinoid treatment of normal amputated limbs Retinoids are able to reprogram the positional identity of blastema cells, as first discovered in the s by Niazi and colleagues in regenerating toad tadpole limbs see Niazi, , for a review.

Mechanisms of distalization 5. Distalization after simple amputation There are several models of distalization after simple amputation through the upper stylopodium Fig. Development , , — Effect of transferrin on amphibian limb regeneration: Roux's Archives for Developmental Biology , , — Cell Differentiation , 21 , 63— Retinoic acid receptors and retinoid X receptors: Cell Death and Differentiation , 13 , — The origin of blastema cells and protein synthesis during forelimb regeneration in Triturus In Kiortsis V.

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Developmental Biology , 24 , — Limb development and regeneration. American Zoologist , 27 , — The regeneration of double dorsal and double ventral limbs in the axolotl. Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology , 94 , 29— Journal of Morphology , 96 , — Anatomical Record , 84 , — Journal of Experimental Zoology , 88 , — Molecular cloning of the Notophthalmus viridescens Radical Fringe cDNA and characterization of its expression during forelimb development and and adult forelimb regeneration. Developmental Dynamics , , — A transitional extracellular matrix instructs cell behavior during muscle regeneration.

Evidence for polarizing zone in the limb buds of Xenopus laevis. Developmental Biology , 55 , — Evidence that reserve cells are a source of regenerated adult newt muscle in vitro. Gene expression profile of the regeneration epithelium during axolotl limb regeneration. Inhibition of limb regeneration in the axolotl after treatment of the skin with actinomycin D. Morphogenetic interactions between rotated skin cuffs and underlying stump tissues in regenerating axolotl forelimbs.

Developmental Biology , 39 , — The effects of rotation and positional change of stump tissues upon morphogenesis of the regenerating axolotl limb. Developmental Biology , 47 , — Developmental Biology , 45 , — Principles of Regenerative Biology. Public Library of Science Biology , 1 , E42 https: Monographs in Developmental Biology pp.

Mise en evidence du role, dans la regeneration des Amphibiens, d'une glycoproteine secrete par la cape apicale: Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology , 32 , — Journal of the American Chemical Society , , — Senescent intimal foam cells are deleterious at all stages of atherosclerosis. Regeneration and reprogramming compared. BioMedical Central Biology , 8 , 5. Apical epithelial cap morphology and fibronectin gene expression in regenerating axolotl limbs. Fibroblast growth factors in regenerating limbs of Ambystoma: Expression of fibroblast growth factors 4, 8, and 10 in limbs, flanks, and blastemas of Ambystoma.

Modeling development and disease with organoids. Cell , , — Lancet , , — Beryllium nitrate inhibits fibroblast migration to disrupt epimorphic regeneration. Retinoic acid coordinately proximalizes regenerate pattern and blastema differential affinity in axolotl limbs. Retinoic acid and thyroid hormone may function through similar and competitive pathways in regenerating axolotls.

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Embryonic induction in regenerating tissue of Rana pipiens and Rana clamitans larvae. Journal of Experimental Zoology , 83 , — Inflammation and metabolism in tissue repair and regeneration. A stepwise model system for limb regeneration. Shh expression in developing and regenerating limb buds of Xenopus laevis. Monoclonal antibody WE6 identifies an antigen that is up regulated in the wound epithelium of news and frogs In Fallon J. An experimental analysis of regional organization in the regenerating forelimb of the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum.

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Evidence supporting a mitogenic role for substance P in amphibian limb regeneration. Involvement of the inisotol phospholipid pathway. Annals of the New York Academy of Science , , — Effect of apical epidermal cap on mitotic cycle and cartilage differentiation in regeneration blastemata in the newt , Notophthalmus viridescens. Developmental Biology , 75 , — Regeneration, tissue injury and the immune response.

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Marginal Notes, Doubtful Statements. The Great British Dream Factory. London Peculiar And Other Nonfiction. The Practice of Writing. Get Started In Creative Writing: How to Write Like Tolstoy. Something of Myself and Others. Human Relations and Other Difficulties. An Almost English Life. Directory of World Cinema: Great Moments in the Theatre. The Cambridge Companion to Creative Writing. The Joy of Quiz. The Art of the Novel. I Say Nothing 3. Literary Wit and Wisdom: Obedience, Struggle and Revolt. Glued To The Box. Peggy to her Playwrights. The Creative Writing Handbook.

Cult British TV Comedy. Deaths of the Poets. The Best Novels in English. Irish Theatre in Transition. British Novelists in Hollywood, — For the Love of Books: A Celebration of the Written Word. Key Concepts in Creative Writing.

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