Kompetenzprofile für Weiterbildner/innen - ein Beitrag zur Professionalisierung (German Edition)

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Instandsetzung von Mauerwerksscheiben bzgl. Nevertheless, this study would not have been possible without the cooperation of individuals active in the field of NVAL.

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Therefore, the research team would like to thank all the respon- dents around Europe for their willingness to cooperate in this study. Moreover, the research team would like to thank the steering committee for their support during the study and their valuable remarks on the draft version of the report. The report consists of three parts. Part A describes the focus of the study, the analytical and the methodological framework chapter 1 and 2. Part B consists of a num- ber of chapters, each including a cluster of research questions as its core theme chapters 3—9.

Each of these chapters contains a description of the research data as well as a con- cluding section.

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Part C of this report summarises the conclusions and draws recommenda- tions from them chapters 9 and A number of annexes are attached to the report. To- gether these attachments give an overview of country experts involved in the study annex 1 , the literature used for this study annex 2 , interesting initiative studies annex 3 , the format used for the country report annex 4 , an example of one of the in-depth country reports annex 5 , and the questionnaire for the interviews with NVAL providers annex 6.

At the European level there is a lack of information about various aspects of the profession: The study aims to provide the Commission with a deeper understanding of the state of profes- sionalisation and professional development of the different groups of adult learning staff across Europe. This study helps strengthening the quality of adult learning, by providing further insight into key issues and challenges related to the adult learning profession, and high- light essential areas of action, current trends, good practices and policies.

By NVAL we mean adult learning — formal and non- formal — not directly linked to the labour market. This definition also encompasses initia- tives that are indirectly related to or supportive of vocational development such as basic skills, languages, ICT and personal competences that contribute to employability. We focused on teaching, management, counselling and guidance, programme planning, support and media use positions, and tried to discover the required paths of those holding the positions through initial training and continuing professional development, as well as the conditions required to ensure that quality is enhanced, maintained and guaranteed.

Research methods The activities carried out within our research project took place in three phases between January and November In this phase the research team reviewed relevant documents and re- ports and interviewed a number of people working in various organisations active in the field of Non-Vocational Adult Learning in Europe.

The country quick scans were meant to give an overview of the main features of the systems, the providers and the practitioners active in the 32 coun- tries studied. Furthermore, the quick scans were intended to allow for the selection of a subset of countries to be included in an in-depth phase of the study in which the focus would be narrowed further. In this phase secondary data was amended with additional information from literature, statis- tics, interviews with providers and policy makers, and interesting initiatives a mini- mum of five interviews per country.

Expert support group - in order to cover all 32 countries in this study the research team cooperated with experts of the ESREA network European Society for Research on the Edu- cation of Adults. Two expert meetings were organised with the cluster experts to gain a deeper understanding of the outcomes of the study and of their impact on future policies, strategies, approaches and models. Recommendations in brief Conclusions and recommendations are derived from the analyses of the data included in the content chapters. Moreover, we involved in our considerations the expert group of this project and a number of additional experts.

These sources provided us with the information needed to formulate and prioritise our recommendations. We focus our recommendations on the following themes: At the same time, two other studies were carried out on staff working in Voca- tional Education and Training. The prevailing distinction between labour market relevant training, vocational training, and enterprise training on the one hand and non-formal edu- cation, non-vocational education on the other appears to be artificial.

The three fields of study often relate to the same group of learners, professionals, providers and policymakers and it is important to avoid duplication, e. Coordination allows to set priorities, develop consistent policies supported by legislative reforms and thus ensure implementation. We recommend to bundle the outcomes of the three studies in order to come to an integrated approach for improving the professional development of people working in the broad field of adult learning.

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However, acknowledge variety One of the key characteristics of the field of NVAL is its enormous variety. Variety has therefore to be considered as a core feature of the field. For policy making, it is therefore necessary to identify areas or clusters of activities each differ in their audience, content, and methods. We found arguments for differentiating four work domains in adult educa- tion: We recommend this to be a basis for a classification for drawing up policy for further professionalising the field.

Some of these positions have always been directly re- lated to adult education such as teaching and training , for others the awareness of their relevance has only developed more recently, such as guidance and counselling and man- agement positions. The study shows that NVAL staff covers a broad range of tasks and ac- tivities, especially in the case of teachers and trainers. Managers too face a broad package of tasks.

The rest of the positions show a much more focused task set. It is important that trainers and teachers have an overview of the developmental, executive, evaluative and follow-up tasks, but it threatens the quality of their work if they have to engage in too many bureaucratic, administrative or technical tasks. It seems that in this sector as well that re-division and re-allocation of tasks may add to its quality. It would be wise to con- sider increasing the number of secretarial and administrative staff supporting the educa- tors.

This would allow teachers and trainers to invest their time primarily in educating, training and teaching, and offer the possibility for further professional development. First, the learners populations are changing through demographic developments such as increasing migration, greater life expectancy, higher levels of education and a willingness to assume more of the costs by participants in their own learning process. Secondly, studies show that issues, like environment and health have become more important, just like the areas of management, economics and new media. The range on offer has also become more greatly differentiated in the language area.

New fields of activity, such as educational counselling, supervision and coaching may be added. Besides, educators of adults have to create learning situations that fit with the learners who are as group increasingly heterogeneous and self-directed. More learner-oriented methods, new forms of methodological change, and the combination of different learning locations and learning methods are more and more important. Moreover, e-learning, is coming to play a significant role among the methodological tools used in the NVAL field.

The same is true for other types of professional activities. Management staff, for example, has to be aware of the great variety of organisational forms and of the differ- ent approaches that can be applied. Complexity and diversity also characterise the task profile of administrative staff who have to cooper- ate with trainers, programme planners and with the management, and who act at the inter- face between the institutions and its clients.

Development of European competence profiles for NVAL staff NVAL staff need particular competences skills, knowledge and attitudes in order to carry out their professional tasks such as teaching, managing, programme planning etc. How- ever, on European and national level there is no clear view on standard competences or skills needed to fulfil the professional tasks in NVAL, partly due the diversity of the field. We recommend the development of a reference framework for competence profiles at the European level.

This structure is not meant to be a prescriptive or an obligatory system. This reference framework could be used by national, regional, sectoral and institutional organisations in developing staff policy. It is important to diversify competence profiles to the different work domains e. Moreover, it is important to identify which competences are general for all adult learning staff and which are specific. The need for professional development and setting requirement exists but, at the same time, experts involved in this study are reluctant to make these recommendations applica- ble to all sections of the field.

Especially in the non-formal part of the field a lot of damage can be expected if too many formal rules are applied overprofessionalisation. Such research should be carried out at national as well as European level. Also, there is a need to have data available on sectors identified and at regional level so that particular policies can be developed to meet the requirements of the people concerned. We recommend to develop, at European level, a set of core features, which will form the core of a programme for em- pirical research on NVAL staff.

As a result we can conclude that training for NVAL staff continues to be fragmented. These structures must first be brought up to enable their application to the variety of existing qualifications. We recommend to support initiatives at the European level to develop professional platforms to exchange existing practice, and work on the development of qualification structures. Focus on in-service training The research data shows that the sector is characterised by a number of factors: These factors create the need for an equally flexible system of teacher education allowing people to move in and out, and to make choices re- garding content, modes of provision and schedules.

There usually is a big gap between ini- tial training and the moment NVAL staff enters the profession. Therefore, while initial train- ing should remain important, the highest priority in terms of investment should be given to in-service training. These in-service trainings should be recognised and validated within na- tional qualification frameworks. We recommend the development of short courses, induc- tion programmes and work learning arrangements to support the professionalisation of NVAL staff.

We recommend the devel- opment of an applied concept of flexicurity for the sector of NVAL that encompasses flexi- bility of the NVAL labour market, relations and work organisations on the one hand, and employment and social security for staff on the other. Points of departure are measures that stimulate transitions in the form of employment bridges such as increasing the trans- parency in the labour market, so job seekers are well informed about their employment possibilities, and employers are well informed about the group of potential employees; or setting up job centres for NVAL staff; or pooling providers in the region so NVAL staff can work fulltime for different providers.

Other measures are related to aspects improving the employability of NVAL staff, such as claims to participation in measures of enterprise NVAL providers or the sector in specific further training. NVAL staff need a stronger lobby The country studies clearly show that there are hardly any organisations representing NVAL staff especially in the non formal part of the sector that could negotiate for better em- ployment situation.

In the cases they are, these organisations are often not very powerful. Overall, there is a strong need for new organisations that come up for the rights and em- ployment situation of NVAL staff. We recommend to develop professional associations in the field, or to take initiatives for this at the European level. The study clearly shows that requirement for entering the NVAL sector are set by a wide variety of actors. In general, there is less cooperation in the NVAL field. Therefore, we recommend to stimulate national platforms where the sector comes together. Preferably these platforms should be grounded in existing organisations on national level e.

Through this platform information should be collected on the NVAL field e. NVAL providers and their staff, qualification standards, but also national training and qualification pathways. Moreover, examples of good practices should be col- lected and information on these should made easily accessible and comparable. Such plat- forms could also stimulate and initiate thematic networks and projects for peer learning. Moreover, they should strengthen the links with the scientific community in order to root the NVAL profession in a strong theory base.

On European level we recommend to develop a European platform in which national organisations will be represented. This European plat- form should support the work on European standards for NVAL staff, a common terminology, and policy directions with the involvement of stakeholders at national level. In this way the specificity of individual countries, regions and sectors are taken into account.

This study shows that at this moment the emphasis is either on selective measures before entering the job, or on internal training and evaluation. External measures such as accreditation, external evaluation by either authorities, professional associations or bodies are underemphasised. We recommend the development and the promotion of an inte- gral quality management system. They however assume that it is not perceived that way by other professionals from other fields. Furthermore, it has become evident that the profession lacks visibility and therefore is not considered a career option by students.

We recommend to promote the visibility and accessibility of this profession among all potential practitio- ners nationally. Young people should be informed about the longer term possibilities to en- ter and to stay in this profession. Offering students opportunities to build experience in adult learning and education processes, for instance as a kind of assistantship or even a social service, is a way of making the profession visible and attractive, to bring in new blood and to re-vitalise it where needed.

NVAL sector needs to be rooted in a strong empirical and theory base Once a process of professional development is underway, it is important to implement, in addition, a professional system of monitoring. It is difficult to start a process of profes- sional development when information on the field is lacking. The country studies clearly show that data on NVAL staff is often poorly recorded, stored, organised and accessible. We recommend to develop more elaborate and sophisticated systems of data gathering, registration and analysis an both national and European level.

Professions, Providers, Programmes, Procedures and Products. Measures to improve the quality should be in- troduced Europe-wide: Proper training of leaders, managers, teachers and other staff add to this quality. Examples of policies to enhance the quality of providers in- clude: That is why investments in programme development, adaptation of programmes to adult learners, responsible selections of content and methods, proper ways of assessing or monitoring progress should all con- tribute to raise the level of performance. The ways in which this is executed vary form more formal to more non-formal categories of education and learning.

The principles, however, stand in both fields. Procedures In many sectors, including education, many systems are available to help organisations and profes- sionals to manage their work in a transparent, responsible and accountable way. They formalise the procedures on how organisations have to organise the process they are responsible for, such as intake procedures, teaching schedules, professional codes of conduct, staff-development regulations, appointments, procedures for handling complaints, and procedures for dealing with pri- vacy matters.

Having all these procedures available and using them properly are indispensable to pro- viders so that they can improve their quality. Products Learning and education lead to many kinds of products. First of all, there is the quantity of the people served. The fact that the NVAL sector helps thousands of unemployed to re-enter the labour market can be considered a product of the invested energy.

There are also more visible products like written output, works of art, audiovisuals, and so on. For adult learning, quality means an improvement of behaviour and its effects and impact. This product orientation is required in quality approaches used in the NVAL sector.

The recommendations apply for many groups and stakeholder, all playing a role in policy making and consecutive development and implementation processes. Political decisions are made at central, regional or local level and sometimes at dif- ferent levels concurrently, with many countries showing a high degree of decentralisation. Quel est le statut de leur travail? Toutefois, ces principes sont valables dans ces deux domai- nes. Mit NVAL meinen wir die formale und nichtformale Erwachsenenbildung, die nicht direkt mit dem Arbeitsmarkt verbunden ist.

Kurzempfehlungen Schlussfolgerungen und Empfehlungen werden aus den Analysen der Daten abgeleitet, die in den Inhaltskapiteln enthalten sind. Unsere Empfehlungen konzentrieren sich auf die folgenden Themen: Standards, Rahmen und Verordnungen. Zielgruppe, Inhalt und Methoden. Zweitens zeigt die Studie, dass Punkte wie Umwelt und Gesundheit immer mehr an Bedeutung gewonnen haben.

Auch bei den Sprachen ist das Angebot immer differenzierter geworden. Diese Struktur ist nicht als vorschreibendes oder obligatorisches System ge- dacht. Der Bedarf an beruflicher Weiterbildung und der Festlegung von Anforderungen besteht, doch gleichzeitig lehnen es Experten, die an dieser Studie beteiligt sind, ab, diese Empfeh- lungen auf alle Teilbereiche anzuwenden.

Fokus auf berufsbegleitende Ausbildung Diese Untersuchungsdaten zeigen, dass der Sektor durch eine Reihe von Faktoren gekenn- zeichnet wird: Diese berufsbegleitenden Ausbildungen sollten innerhalb der nationalen Qualifikationsrah- men anerkannt und validiert werden.

Wir empfehlen die Entwicklung eines ange- wandten Flexicurity-Konzepts Flexicurity: Vorzugsweise sollten diese Plattformen in bestehende Organisationen auf nationaler Ebene eingebettet werden z. Berufe, Anbieter, Programme, Ver- fahren und Ergebnisse. Daher sollten Investitionen in die Programmentwicklung, die Anpassung von Programmen an erwachsene Lernende, die verantwortliche Auswahl von Inhalten und Methoden und die richtigen We- ge, den Fortschritt zu beurteilen oder zu kontrollieren, dazu beitragen das Leistungsniveau zu heben.

Die Art und Weise, wie diese umgesetzt werden, reicht von eher formalen bis zu eher nichtformalen Bildungs- und Lernkategorien. Die Prinzipien sind aber in beiden Bereichen gleich. In this context, the Commission stresses the importance of lifelong learning and the role of adult learning, including its con- tribution to personal development and fulfilment in reaching those objectives4. Definitions of adult learning vary, but for the purpose of this study it is defined as all forms of learning undertaken by adults after leaving initial education and training, how- ever far this process may have been taken6.

Most educa- adult learning system, integrated into a lifelong learning tion and training systems are still strategy, which provides participants with increased labour largely focused on the education market access, promotes social integration and prepares the and training of young people and participants for active ageing in the future 7. Further action is therefore needed to confront the challenges facing the European Union and the Member States. The Commission refers to five key challenges that need to be addressed by adult learning stakeholders in Europe: In order to help strengthen the adult learning sector so that it is able to use its full capac- ity, the European Commission developed an Action Plan on Adult learning9.

The general ob- jective of the Action Plan is to implement the five key messages established in the Com- munication: They help learners to develop knowledge, competences and skills. The professional development of people working in adult learning is a vital determinant of the quality of adult learning.

The joint report on progress with the Education and Training work programme expressed regret at the fact that the professional development of vocational teachers and trainers continues to pose a real challenge in most countries There are many educational and pro- fessional routes to becoming an adult learning professional and the professions are not al- ways recognised within formal career structures.

Compared with other educational subsys- tems, adult learning is characterised by high percentages of part-time staff and people working on a voluntary basis who may have few career prospects and are frequently paid on an hourly basis Therefore the Commission wishes to arrive at an enhanced understanding of the professional development of adult learning staff, with the help of a study on adult learning professions in Europe.

By concen- trating on improving the professional development of adult learning staff and enhancing the attractiveness of their professions, this study may be considered an input for strengthening the quality of adult learning. It will provide further insight into key issues and challenges related to the adult learning profession, and highlight essential areas of action, current trends, good practices and policies. The results of this study become available around September The study aims to make an inventory of the cate- gories of practitioners at work in this sector of Non Vocational Adult Learning.

Furthermore, it seeks to reveal the factors that promote or affect the quality of the work provided by these practitioners. Within their national contexts, within the context of providing institu- tions or agencies, the focus is on the actual practitioners doing the work in the field of adult education and learning in Europe. This study on adult learning professions coincides with two other studies carried out by the Institut fur Technik und Bildung ITB Bremen and RvB and PLATO on teachers and trainers or practitioners in corporate education and practitioners active in vocational education beyond regular vocational school education.

Together these three studies may be consid- ered components of a European overview of educative practices in lifelong learning in Europe and, more specifically, of those operating as practitioners in this field. The first cluster of which refers to the policy contexts in the nations studied.

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The next cluster of questions focuses on recruitment and selection of staff. A third cluster of questions aims at describing the actual work and employment situation. The fourth is a more development-oriented cluster of questions in which career paths are the issue. The fifth cluster refers to everything that is done to monitor, assess, or evaluate the perform- ance of providers of adult education and of their staff.

The next cluster of questions again has a contextual focus, but this time on the external perception of the professions studied and on the perspective for professional development given to staff. The last set of ques- tions focuses on the overall lessons to be learned and recommendations to be made in or- der to upgrade the sector where this is deemed to be necessary or desirable.

Before starting the research, a preliminary set of questions needed to be answered. These questions are meant to identify the field of study and the units of analysis. We needed to identify the practitioners to be included in the study and the organisational context in which they work. Who are the practitioners to be included in the study? In what field do they operate?

Recruitment situation and expectations 4. Who are the employers of adult learning professionals? What kinds of adult learning staff are being recruited? Do the expectations include certain skills or competences? What specific qualifications, if any, are required? Are there national or regional standards for such background requirements? Are pedagogical qualifications demanded of adult educators, in addition to their subject-specific knowledge? How are adult learning staff recruited?

What is the situation regarding recruitment competition and demand? Are the positions offered full-time, part-time or temporary? What kinds of contracts are offered? What percentage of the adult learning staff are volunteers? Is there a statutory local, regional or national career structure setting out qualifications and salary scales for adult learning professionals? Are adult learning professionals given additional salary supplements for qualifications?

Do the permanent positions carry pension entitlements? What is the length of the working week? How much of the working time is earmarked for training-related activities? Are adult learning staff members of trade unions? What are the most common ways of becoming an adult educator? What development opportunities are available to adult learning staff?

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What are the career prospects for adult learning staff? To what extent are employers engaged in developing the competences of their adult learning staff? Are adult learning staff engaged in lifelong learning? Is this actively supported, valued, and recognised by the employers? Monitoring, assessment and evaluation, and quality management Do adult learning professions fall under the remit of a local, regional or national regulatory body?

If so, are practitioners required to register with such a body? How do the adult learning organisations assess the quality of the training provided? Are the adult learning staff regularly assessed, and if so, how? Do the adult learners also take part in this assessment? Is there an evaluation of the outcome of the learning? Attractiveness and trends Should the profession of adult educator be made more attractive? What practices currently exist to increase its attractiveness? What trends can be observed with respect to the professional development of adult learning staff?

What are the major challenges for the development of the profession and the professional devel- opment of adult learning staff? How can we improve the professional development of adult learning staff at local, regional, na- tional and European level? How can we improve the quality of adult learning staff at local, regional, national, European, sec- tor and branch level? We need to de- fine the parameters of the study. Our focus is on the practical working conditions in the field, specifically in relation to the subfield of non-vocational adult learning and the people working in this field.

By NVAL we mean adult learning — formal and non-formal — not directly linked to the labour market. It can be seen as a social movement and social educational activity without a direct link to the la- bour market, generally not requiring specific qualifications to enter and engaged in by the learner for personal, social, civic and cultural purposes. Non-formal learning activities are also organised and have a major learning component.

In contrast to formal learning, however, the non-formal learning activities do not lead to certification. We therefore decided not to make a strict distinction in this re- port between providers of vocational adult learning on the one hand and providers of NVAL on the other hand, but to take a pragmatic view based on the programme of the individual provider.

The field of NVAL is characterised by diversity in its form, content and the context in which it takes place. NVAL providers can be found in both the public and private sectors, and include educational institutions, firms, NGOs and commercial and community organisa- tions. Beside teachers and trainers, they also include man- agers, course planners, counsellors and administrative staff.

The European research group on competences in the field of adult and continuing education in Europe identifies six areas of activity that are relevant for the professional development of adult learning — teaching, management, counselling and guidance, programme planning, support and media use posi- tions as described in the box below New skills are required for planning the setting for new learning environments, for integration of learning techniques based on ICT e-learning, blended learning in the classroom, and for guiding and supporting adult learners in their professional learning processes.

These new requirements are the more challenging because most courses in adult learning are not given by qualified adult educators but by schoolteachers lacking experience with adult learners, or experts with no educational background at all. Managers of adult learning centres and institutions need the skills and competences to be good leaders, to manage educational and organisational quality, to develop their staff, to engage in educational marketing, to raise funds, to manage projects and hardware buildings, infrastructure, etc.

This includes recogni- tion of prior and experiential learning, setting up and updating information systems and databases, checking information on learning offers, and guiding learners through their learning processes, counselling in the case of learning problems, evaluating achievements and validating individual com- petences. They may also involve a broader and more differentiated spectrum of activities and related competences such as programme planning in wider cooperation with local authorities, associations and other educational institutions, and the integration of adult learning into relevant parts of regional development programmes.

In the last case the focus is on the external consistency of the curricula to what extent does this kind of pro- gramme systematically match the needs of stakeholders and society? Support staff provide technical, administrative and organisational support for adult learning. This support includes such diverse activities as answering telephone enquiries from potential learners, administering course registration and preparing classroom equipment. These staff members may not regard themselves as, or be regarded as, adult educators, but their activities di- rectly affect the quality of adult learning provision.

The non-educational, purely administrative, tech- nical or other roles are considered to be beyond the scope of this study. Another important field of media use is publicity. The accessibility of adult learning depends to a high degree on the visibility of the wide range of op- portunities. The presentation of these opportunities in various old and new media is therefore an important task.

In this study we followed this classification as closely as possible and tried to discover the required paths of those holding the positions studied through initial training, selection and continuing professional development, as well as the conditions required to ensure that quality is enhanced, maintained and guaranteed. In this phase the research team reviewed relevant documents and reports and spoke to a number of people working in various organisations active in the field of Non-Vocational Adult Learn- ing in Europe.

The country quick scans were meant to give an overview of the main features of the sys- tems, the providers and the practitioners active in the 32 countries studied. In this phase secon- dary data was amended with additional information from literature, statistics, interviews with pro- viders and policy makers, and interesting initiatives a minimum of five per country.

The selection of countries was made in agreement with the European Commission and strove to maintain a broad Europe-wide perspective, both geographically and with regard to differences in societal organisa- tion. In each of the selected countries three interviews were planned with respondents representing key categories of NVAL providers. They were important ministers and reformers — e.

Juliusz Poniatowski , speakers of the Parliament — e. Maciej Rataj , prime ministers — e. Minister, vice-prime minister and an activist of folk and cooperative movements, he also greatly contributed to the education of large groups of the society e. The booklet was first published in Lublin Thugutt , and had four later editions: It is written in the form of seven separate letters, preceded by a short introduction the author see the table below.

Let us have a quick look at the main theses of the individual letters, as they are a kind of a catalogue of the main ways to full emancipation of peasantry. The first letter is entitled: Study so that you do not become a workhorse but a conscious creator of a new life. The letter starts with remarks on the need to level the social inequalities experienced by peasants in particular. It is often work on the verge of human endurance, so one cannot work more, longer or harder to improve the life of the family.

He emphasizes two issues. One of them is modern knowledge on farming Study as a farmer , thanks to which one can be more effective in growing plants and breeding animals. The other issue refers to social standing Study equally hard as a citizen as a sine qua non condition of full emancipation of Polish peasants. So it can be easily seen that according to Thugutt, civil education is not only a small complement to agricultural education, but also an equal and necessary direction of educational activities among young rural adults on their way to gain full emancipation.

The following six letters provide and develop details on the tasks of residents of rural areas. It is only the uniting of a group of people around a common idea that gives the weaker an opportunity to present their opinions in such a way that others have to take them into consideration. It is also where a young adult can learn how to function in a social group, how to discuss, how to win other people over in a public debate, etc.

The third letter Let money be your servant, not your master is to encourage peasants to find an effective way of becoming wealthier — not forgetting about the principle that gaining wealth cannot be the only objective in life. The other way of becoming wealthy in a poor rural environment is actually really possible only when all the strengths and powers of the entire community become united in a joint effort.

Economic and cooperative education adapted to the abilities and needs of residents of rural areas should foster it Letter III, [in: The ways of building civic competences… 43 And the fourth letter Be yourself and have self-confidence is to give people in rural areas confidence in their capabilities and in their potential so that they do not have to look for opportunities for themselves by escaping to other social classes. The following virtues are important elements of this heritage: They should be nourished and developed over a lifetime, just like the sense of human dignity and sense of freedom, as the supreme message of this letter is a postulate of being yourself and not looking at others and hoping for success — not only of the individual but also of the whole peasant class.

It has clear notes of agrarianism — a social doctrine based on emphasizing the leading role of farming and peasantry in the life of the state Letter IV, [in: In the fifth letter Be good and just and do not stop fighting the evil Thugutt provides an interpretation of ethical principles that Polish peasants should follow.

He emphasizes on many occasions that if we develop kindness, justice and willingness to counteract evil in ourselves we stand a good chance of making the world better Letter V, [in: The last but one letter Be brave, as there is a long way ahead of you. The far reaching changes in the life of Polish rural areas — such as general right to vote or agricultural reform — make Polish rural areas look at the future with hope. One needs to be very careful, however warns Thugutt, as all this can bring the feeling of illusory power among peasants.

And the rights gained should be actively used because one cannot benefit from new opportunities if one cannot fill them with content. To be able to do this, one needs to be well prepared — that is to have proper education and patience. The latter does not definitely seem to be the least important one. Thugutt also warns, referring to the example of Russia, against too radical and revolutionary changes, which demolish the old political-social and economic order in the rural areas and do not offer a chance to develop a new, more democratic and modern order Letter VI, [in: The last, seventh letter is entitled: Never forget about Poland.

The advice contained there has a very serious tone — it constitutes an encouragement to nourish deep patriotism. The first one is connected with the imperative to serve the country with daily work, and the other — very prophetic — with the necessity of the highest personal sacrifice if the independence of the country needs to be protected Letter VII, [in: He also clearly showed the educational dimensions of those processes: What is important — the proposals voiced by Thugutt and Solarz in the years just before World War II began to be implemented.

Thus the educational pathways to emancipation of the peasantry and the building of civic society by education that they described were effectively put into practice. Maria Stelmasiewicz Bibliography 1. Selection of documents for the years , Warszawa, pp. The ways of building civic competences… 45 7. Historical Perspectives, Riga, pp. Jahrhunderts und dem Anfang des Unter den verschiedenen Ideen zwischen dem 1.

The aim of the article was a critical analysis of the key civic competences; provided for in the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council, seen from the angle of two theoretical perspectives: The discussion's starting point was the notion of citizenship and the specificity of EU citizenship. The significance of the accepted concept of democracy in defining the set of civic competences was emphasized. What is more, the constraints, and the formal character of EU citizenship were discussed.

The above-mentioned constituted a background for a question of justifiability of determining civic competences in the European level and importance of the key role of these competences. In that way, the issue of using categories of uniformity in the situation of diversity and a perpetuation strategy in the context of identity building — in the situation of change — was highlighted. Still, the analysis of discourse concerning key civic competences allows for the identification of features which go beyond the modern viewpoint. This enables the conclusion that the key civic competences; generated and established in the modern perspective, do not exclude the postmodern discourse; although the way of these two perspectives are coexisting within the frameworks of the discussed issue is certainly not satisfactory to everyone.

What are the civic competences? Defining the civic competences is dependent on the specific assumptions. First of all, their meaning is connected with the way of understanding citizenship itself. In present times, the notion of citizenship coexists with the notion of democracy and, more precisely, with the democratic political system. Still, in the reference books one can encounter other perspectives of citizenship.

For instance, Kazimierz Dziubka associates citizenship with a political and legal order, and not necessarily with democracy Dziubka , pp. And that has been confirmed by the events of citizens' opposition towards the particular regimes in which they happen to be living. Citizenship, according to Dziubka, is built on the basis of subject's knowledge. Both above-mentioned viewpoints on citizenship bring about certain implications for understanding civic competences. If the fact of democracy is perceived through state declarations relating to a political and legal system, the set of competences will be of totally different nature than when democracy is interpreted as a state to which we constantly aspire.

Civic competences will be seen differently when democracy is perceived as accomplishable, and this perception will be different with the assumption that democracy is a sporadic thing Bingham et al. However, when the inclusion is emphasized as a base value of democracy, it is crucial whether there are some initial conditions defined, which satisfaction allows for participation.

In other words, whether and to what extent, there will be the problem of so- called internal exclusion Young , p. Therefore, the range of civic competences is also determined by a dominant concept of democracy. Assuming three main sociological perspectives of democracy, proposed by Mathieu Deflem, one can define a general outline of the basic range of competences needed by citizens. The first perspective input perspectives , referring to Republican tradition, includes those theories of democracy, that emphasize citizens' participation in forming of the government by means of election process Deflem , p.

The key value here is equality of all citizens, participation in an election process, and an influence on political representation ibidem. Deflem states; quoting Niklas Luhmann, that it is not about the lack of division of the governors and the governed, but about institutionalisation of differences between the government and the opposition ibidem, p. Therefore, assuming this perspective results in the particular set of civic competences which core is a citizen's activity consisting in the participation in an election process. A citizen must be aware that this participation is a duty and; simultaneously, the election decisions must be conscious and that requires specific knowledge and critical evaluation skills.

The main emphasis here is on every citizen's freedom and a lack of state interventionism. Still, in a sociological view, it is about effectiveness of a political system and economic productivity ibidem. Therefore, civic competences seen from that angle are focused on respecting human rights; especially, freedom. From a state's point of view, the most important things are human independence as well as political and economic effectiveness.

As the result, this might lead to resignation — in a private dimension — from civic activities, and reduction the role of citizen to the role of client Habermas, , p. According to this perspective, democracy should guarantee that decisions are made on the basis of consent gained during the course of open debate Deflem , p. In consequence, the main emphasis of democracy perceived that way is on civic activity understood as a participation in decision making; not only thanks to election, but also with the use of deliberation methods.

This requires specific knowledge from citizens that does not mean expertise , together with creative and critical thinking, as well as, skills of listening and arguing. Therefore, the concept of democracy; as the context for formulating civic competences, influences their substantive content. And as the notion of citizenship is discussed in which the democratic system is embedded, it is crucial to ask the following question: The answer to that question is not simple. Generally speaking, adaptive competences are surely the main core of civic competences.

On the other hand, when referring to the above-mentioned perspectives of understanding democracy, one can easily notice that a possibility of crossing the threshold of adaptation appears together with the increase in importance of public participation. Following the line of thought of K. Dziubka, if an essential relation between citizenship and the democratic system does not occur and civic competences of a subject are connected with one's idea of political membership, the adaptive nature of these competences will recede into the background, and the emancipatory and critical competences will be emphasized.

Competences of EU Citizens In , the European Parliament and the Council adopted an European reference framework for key competences for lifelong learning. What is more, the fundamental rights of citizens of the European Union are provided for in Article 20, paragraph 2. Pursuant to the Treaty of Lisbon, the citizens enjoy the right of citizens' initiative, which is provided for in detail in the Regulation no.

This specificity is especially visible in a social level. It seems that the idea of citizenship, which could be possible here, can be mostly associated with the second perspective of democracy according to M. Admittedly, the first perspective is also possible here, although it is highly limited within the scope of civic activity. However, the specific nature of European citizenship makes the third perspective impossible together with the resulting implications for understanding citizenship. What is especially illusory in the European level is this civic activity mentioned above.

Habermas put it in The growing number of regulations passed in the supranational level concern the increasing number of citizens and widening areas of life. These words are still relevant today despite the fact of introducing the above-mentioned right of citizens' initiative. The initiative is possible with the participation of one million citizens, who are nationals of at least one quarter of the EU Member States. The organiser of that initiative is a citizens' committee composed of at least seven persons who are residents of seven different Member States. In case of solution constructed that way, there is no providing the right of civic activity and participation in decision-making processes to speak of.

It is worth bearing in mind that the idea of active citizenship has its political origin and it is not solely about legitimation of democratic rule, but also about a neoliberal concept of a good society Biesta , p. For that reason it seems that some solutions formulated in EU level and consistent with the idea of active citizenship are probably by definition of more formal character than giving actual possibilities of action.

In the context of debatability or, putting it other way, specificity of European citizenship, defining civic competences in the European Union level is not obvious and it entails another questions and doubts. And what are the results of the fact that these competences have been defined as key ones? When answering these questions, one can use two basic theoretical perspectives: The modern perspective which assumes universality of truth and knowledge, linear progress, universal model of reason for the whole humanity, development through scientific reasoning by experts, and order as one of the most important tasks Dahlberg et al.

Therefore, what is the purpose of key competences? What does this key open? Growing internationalisation, the rapid pace of change, and the continuous roll- -out of new technologies mean that Europeans must not only keep their specific job-related skills up-to-date, but also possess the generic competences that will enable them to adapt to change. The language of this statement emphasizes the adaptive nature of these competences, and it highlights their economic significance.

The EU's innovativeness, productivity and competitiveness are the reasons for Europeans to obtain and round out their competences. L of 30 December with regard to discursive strategies used in the text, enabled to draw the following conclusions: The fact of defining key competences, and the way of justifying their formulation Annex to the above-mentioned Act show the use of discursive strategy called a perpetuation strategy De Cillia et al.

Admittedly, the European identity is situated against the background of the changing world and progressive globalisation, but, eventually, it is about supporting and reproducing the identity, and not about changing it. Despite the fact that each citizen will need a wide range of key competences Annex to Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council no.

Adaptive skills are emphasized here, and obtaining of the competences is recommended to everyone. Key competences are those which all individuals need for personal fulfilment and development — this is the statement included in Annex. Therefore, evaluating key competences is consolidated thanks to referring to ad populum reasoning — after all, everyone is interested in self-development. And there is a dominant assumption, deeply rooted in the modernity ground, concerning objective knowledge of those who construct these competences.

Thus, there is the discourse of power according to Michel Foucault that requires adaptation and constitutes the particular standards Dahlberg et al. On the other hand, this discourse totally ignores the difference between learning these competences and possibilities of their use Biesta , p. The problem of defining key competences becomes even more complicated when one focuses on the civic competences. After all, it is not only about the predefined, uniform competences for the citizens of Europe, but also about the very fact of the above-mentioned citizenship specificity in the European level.

Defining the civic competences as key ones and creating their catalogue does not necessarily suit the postmodern perspective. Therefore, the idea of constructing such competences in the European level should be perceived as abortive in the light of this perspective. Moreover, what does this successful life mean and who is really successful here? Who does give evaluations here and according to what criteria?

However, then the question arises, which was asked in one of radio interviews by Professor Zygmunt Bauman: Firstly, one should consider whether a substitute is necessary here. Still, a negative answer to that question would lead to serious practical consequences. One can reject the modern perspective, understanding its inappropriateness in relation to the modern world. However, there is this basic issue of functioning in the state where the vast part of education; institutional education, is deeply rooted in this perspective and no one speaks of rejecting the approach.

It is especially visible within the scope of creating of educational law, where the procedure triumphs. It offers solution to every problem and the law is treated as omnipotent. Even the internal functioning of educational establishments is characterised with a dominant technical dimension Giroux , p. However, it is possible this result actually is logical. Possibly, it is about seeking order in chaos — in such a desperate manner that it becomes a caricatural situation? On the other hand, a complete abandonment of the modern perspective in understanding of the world, including education, is not possible also because of the reasons that lie within people.

When speaking of multiple perspectives, complexity, contextuality of reality and a lack of simple cause-and-effect relationships, the language rooted in the modernity is used. Taking the above-mentioned into consideration and assuming the perspective of a person bathed in modernity, but having simultaneous awareness of new features of reality, one does not reject the very fact of formulating key competences, including defining civic competences within this area. This article cannot assume that radical answer and since other, alternative one cannot be offered, the possibility of formulating competences within the frameworks of institutional education is not rejected.

The analysis of these competences seems the most significant at this point. Seeking Elements that Go Beyond the Modern Viewpoint The result of the above mentioned statements is a conclusion that the discourse articulating the key competences is of consolidating nature, legitimising a specific construction of citizenship, and of predicational nature predicational strategies ; that is, — in other words — evaluative nature De Cillia et al. Still, does it go beyond adaptive competences?

Does it consider complexity and multiple perspectives of the world to some extent?

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Does it emphasize social and individual diversity? Does it recognize the local perspective understood through social issues? The detailed analysis of the civic competences enabled to formulate the following conclusions: Within the scope of definition and knowledge, the civic competences are perceived mostly as adaptive competences. Certain norms and values, which contents are beyond an individual's influence, are emphasized here.

Still, several issues, which give an opportunity of escaping educational uniformity, are worth mentioning here. Knowledge of democracy that is mentioned in this passage has two following sources: Therefore, the knowledge created in that way is not of uniform and universal character. It recognizes diversity and localness, and its contents cannot be imposed or controlled. What is more, the analysis of knowledge area within the scope of the civic competences enabled to identify the category of awareness, which is; admittedly, connected with knowledge but it is not included essentially in this area.

The creators of the key civic competences indicate the development of awareness of the aims, values and policies of social and political movements ibidem and emphasize that: While the first part of the sentence is clearly of normative and deterministic nature, the second part shows a different approach. Social diversity as one of the elements characterising the contemporary world is emphasized here. What is more, the excerpt concerning diversity does not discuss knowledge directly but it mentions awareness.

Using the category of awareness makes it impossible to evaluate the above-mentioned passage unambiguously. Awareness is created by means of beliefs, ideas, opinions, evaluations and claims. The relation of this category with the area of knowledge consists in the fact that knowledge is one of the factors determining awareness but it is not the only factor. Therefore, the category of awareness opens the areas of education that give possibilities of going beyond uniformity; still, it is not guaranteed.

When constructing the civic competences in the area of abilities, the strategy of activation was used. The discourse emphasizes the ability to engage in solving social problems, which does not necessarily lead to maintaining the current political and legal order although, as it has been emphasized before, the very idea of active citizenship is political.

The ability of critical and creative thinking is of similar nature. To the contrary, it gives a possibility of going beyond this perspective, or even rejecting it. It also enables to see diversity and subjectivity; especially, as the discourse emphasizes localness of problems and decision-making processes. Still, there are also some elements specific for the modern perspective.

Skills for civic competences relate to the ability to engage effectively … ibidem. Indicating that the engagement should be effective, using the language of economy, are expressions of technocratic domination. On the other hand, more advanced types of participation in decision-making processes were not excluded; still, their importance was; in fact, diminished.

Among the foundations of the attitude notabene — defined as a positive one; hence, directly evaluated, which is evidence of the modern perspective presence , there were; among others, the following issues mentioned: Conclusion Defining the key civic competences in the European level is debatable for several reasons. The first reason is the nature of EU citizenship. It is additional, formal and; in fact, limited. Civic activities in the European level cannot, in result, go beyond the particular level of advancement within public participation.

Possibilities of increasing civic activities must be considered in the national, and; especially, local level anyway. Therefore, there is a problem of using the categories of uniformity with the things that are diverse, using the perpetuation strategy in the situation of change. It is about the tension between modernity and postmodernity as theoretical perspectives.

Still, the analysis of the key civic competences enabled to make a significant observation. Neither they will lead to the economic success of the EU, despite the intentions. However, thanks to them it is possible to notice that education cannot be considered according to black-and-white categories. Among the key civic competences originating from and based on the modern perspective, there are those which relate to the features of postmodernity.

This shows that coexistence of both perspectives is possible. The only problem is whether the shape of this coexistence is satisfactory. Educa- tion, Truth, Emancipation, London. Dahlberg G, Moss P. Visions of a Scholarly Tradition, Cambridge. Key Compe- tences for Lifelong Learning. European Reference Framework, European Communities. Rhetorics of Racism and Ant-Semitism, London. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council No.

L of Beyond the Competent Active Citizen, In: The subject of moral education evokes categories such as standards, values or virtues, by means of which the teleology of education is usually drawn up in this area. Meanwhile, the beginning of the twenty-first century has brought us a transfer of the concept of competence into the field of moral education.

The article is an attempt to understand what content this category includes with regard to educational-moral reflection, and to answer the question of what value the category of competence has for the theory of moral education. References to comparative studies were made in this research. These analyses led to drawing attention to the following issues: The particularity of the concept of competences The subject of moral education evokes categories such as standards, values or virtues, by means of which the teleology of education is usually drawn up in this area.

It is introduced into general use, inter alia, through the policy of the European Union. The concept of competence is in fact crucial for the Lisbon Strategy, the European Qualifications Framework and related National Qualifications Frameworks. Referring the notion of competence to the field of morality is associated with attempts to describe social competences.

While in EU documents moral competences are not talked about directly, the exemplary learning outcomes for individual courses of study as well as the standards of training preparing for the teaching profession use the concept of moral competences Regulation ; Regulation Therefore, the penetration of this concept into the discussion on moral education, and not just on the occasion of making reflections on higher education, but also ones regarding other levels of education which are to develop key competences of students, must be taken into account.

Referring to a new conceptual category indicates that it has some content that was not contained in the terms used previously. What is more, it suggests that by using the previously used concepts one cannot adequately capture and resolve the educational-moral problems diagnosed today. What is the specificity of this concept? What new things does it bring to the reflection on moral education? The first observation results from the comparison of the concepts. Shifting attention from the object of action onto its subject discloses a conviction that in the modern, fluctuating, and thus complex world, the knowledge of standards or values is not enough.

In specific, unique situations, a subject must independently work out the principles of action which are the best for him or her. To achieve this, the subject needs appropriate competences. The statement that the term competences indicates the quality of the acting subject, in contrast to other terms used in the theories of moral education that draw attention to the object of action, is true with regard to the category of standards or values.

The shift towards the subject, however, is also implied by the category of virtue. Thus, the question of what the category of competence brings that is new in relation to the concept of virtue seems reasonable. An attempt to look at a particular theory, a category against other categories, allows us to notice not only its specificity, but also provides us with a chance to answer the question of whether it adequately describes the reality to which it refers, what its strengths are and what its weaknesses are. These questions are important not only for theoretical reasons, but also because of the impact of theoretical findings on educational practice.

Therefore, this paper will be an attempt to speak in the debate on the value of the category of competence for the theory of moral education. In this reflection the category of competence will be presented against the background of the category of virtue. The category of competence and the theory of moral education… 65 I would like to invite to the dialogue on the subject formulated above two thinkers: The choice may seem surprising, given that neither of the philosophers mentioned deals directly with the category of competence.

However, the selection is not accidental. In other words, the term moral competences is interpreted with reference to Habermas's theory. Another example is the research conducted by Maria Czerepaniak-Walczak. Therefore, a reference to the writings of Habermas in this article results from the belief that an attempt to understand the concept of moral competences requires delving into the foundations on which the interpretations of the term are built. In the introduction, however, yet another issue requires an explanation. Therefore, why do we speak of social competences and do not attempt to clarify what moral competences are?

The answer to this question is related to the assumptions of Habermas's theory, which sees the source of principles in the agreement achieved in social life. Therefore, the reference to moral competences as distinct from social ones would suggest that morality has different sources than the consensus reached by an agreement in community life. Differentiating moral competences from social ones would result in a requirement to clarify the issue of the source of morality.

The philosopher is a neo-Thomist, that is, he represents the trend in philosophy which develops the theory of moral virtues. Hence, it is this category that draws attention to the quality of the acting subject and for whom the category of moral competences is an alternative. Neo- Thomism has numerous representatives. In Poland, for example, the Dominican Jarek Woroniecki conducted a reflection in his spirit. However, Maritain's thought seems to be more suitable for the research undertaken here, as Maritain focuses on the relationships between intellectual development and the moral value of an act of a certain person, whereas Woroniecki is interested in the influence of the will on the quality of a subject's moral action.

I shall begin my considerations from a short reconstruction of fragments of Habermas' theory, particularly inspiring for the theory of moral education, in order to reflect on this theory in the light of Jacques Maritain's moral philosophy later on. Thus, it is located on the border between sociology and philosophy Habermas , p. Habermas is looking for answers to the questions of how public space is built, how people enter into communicative interaction and come to an agreement formulating the principles of social life.

However, these questions are not only an expression of theoretical research. The story of Habermas' life, for which World War II constituted the horizon and the subsequent trial of totalitarianism in the form of Nazism, has contributed to the fact that the German philosopher has been looking for a theoretical foundation for the process of democratization. For he is convinced that totalitarianism cannot be overcome by liberalism, but by such a system of social life which is based on commonly applicable standards.

Moreover, he is accompanied by the awareness that the changes of mentality of individuals are the condition of moral renewal Habermas , pp. The answer to the question of where to find the justification for commonly applicable standards is embedded in social theory. Habermas believes that the law that is applicable is that which is acceptable to each participant in a particular community, that is, it regulates a given matter in the equal interest of all.

Furthermore, he believes that such a law can arise only through a debate which is initiated by putting forward normative value claims by its participants, and one of its dimensions is accepting the perspectives of all others, leading to the verification of whether a formulated standard could be adopted by them. The search for a principle of conduct carried out in a different way, especially through intellectual considerations, must — according to Habermas — ultimately fail.