El escándalo del año: Plantadas en el altar II (El club Saint Row) (Spanish Edition)

The Span- iards, following, were soon entangled among the palisades under the water. Among the slain was Pedro Barba, cap- tain of the crossbowmen, a gallant officer, who had highly distinguished himself in the Conquest. This disaster occasioned much mortification to Cor- tes. It was a salutary lesson, that stood him in good stead during the remainder of the war. Whatever else might fail, the capital of the Aztec empire was true to itself, and, mindful of its an- cient renown, opposed a bold front to its enemies in every direction.

As in a body whose extremities have been struck with death, life still rallied in the heart, and seemed to beat there, for the time, with even a more vigorous pulsation than ever. It may appear extraordinary that Guatemozin should have been able to provide for the mainte- nance of the crowded population now gathered in the metropolis, especially as the avenues were all in the possession of the besieging army.

They must, however, have been very great, to enable them to meet the as- sailants so promptly and eflBciently on every point. It was not till the great towns in the neighborhood cast off their al- legiance that the supply began to fail, from the failure of its sources. This defection was more frequent, as the inhabitants became convinced that the government, incompetent to its own defence, must be still more so to theirs; and the Aztec me- tropolis saw its great vassals fall off one after an- other, as the tree over which decay is stealing parts with its leaves at the first blast of the tempest.

Yet it is true that the Valley, teeming with towns and villages, swarmed with a population — and one, too, in which every man was a warrior — greatly ex- ceeding that of the present day. These levies were distributed among the three garrisons at the termi- nations of the causeways; and many found active employment in foraging the country for provi- sions, and yet more in carrying on hostilities against the places still unfriendly to the Spaniards. Quantities of stone and timber were obtained from the buildings that had been demolished in the city.

They were transported in the brigantines to the causeway, and from these materials a row of huts or bar- racks was constructed, extending on either side of the works of Xoloc. It may give some idea of the great breadth of the causeway at this place, one of the deepest parts of the lake, to add that, although the barracks were erected in parallel lines on the opposite sides of it, there still re- mained space enough for the army to defile between.

The great body of the allies, with a small detachment of horse and infantry, were quar- tered at the neighboring post of Cojohuacan, which served to protect the rear of the encampment and to maintain its communication with the country. A similar disposition of forces took place in the other divisions of the army, under Alvarado and Sandoval, though the accommodations provided for the shelter of the troops on their causeways " " Y vea Vuestra Magestad," says Cortes to the emperor, " que tan ancha puede ser la Calzada, que va por lo mas hondo de la La- guna, que de la una parte, y de la otra iban estas Casas, y quedaba en medio hecha Calle, que muy d placer d pie, y A caballo ibamos, y veniamos por ella.

The Spanish camp was supplied with provisions from the friendly towns in the neighborhood, and especially from Tezcuco. But their princi- pal food was the tortillas, cakes of Indian meal, still common in Mexico, for which bake-houses were established, under the care of the natives, in the garrison towns commanding the causeways. But this was in a great degree obviated by a Catalan sol- dier, who by virtue of his prayers and incantations wrought wonder- ful cures both on the Spaniards and their allies.

Hist, de la Conquista, ubi supra. Hist, de la Conquista, loc. Yet the Indian fig is an agreeable, nutritious fruit; and the tortilla, made of maize flour, with a slight infusion of lime, though not precisely a morceau friand, might pass for very tolerable camp fare. According to the lively Author of " Life in Mexico," it is made now precisely as it was in the days of the Aztecs. If so, a cooking receipt is almost the only thing that has not changed in this country of revolutions. Or it is allowed to simmer over a slow fire. The husk is then easily separated and the grain is mashed or ground.

The paste is then formed with the hands into a very thin cake which is cooked on an earthen pan placed over the fire. It is eaten with boiled beans and a mixture of Chile and lard. Another common article of diet is the tamale. This is a mixture of chopped meat, Chile, and onions, covered with corn paste, then wrapped in corn or plantain leaves and boiled or baked. Its unhappy inmates beheld the hostile legions encompassing them about, with their glit- tering files stretching as far as the eye could reach.

They saw themselves deserted by their allies and vassals in their utmost need; the fierce stranger penetrating into their secret places, violating their temples, plundering their palaces, wasting the fair city by day, firing its suburbs by night, and in- trenching himself in solid edifices under their walls, as if determined never to withdraw his foot while one stone remained upon another.

Tare, de Cortes, ap. Yet one may well be startled by the assertion of Oviedo, that the carnivorous monsters fished up the bloated bodies of those drowned in the lake to swell their repast! Cortes, who would gladly have spared the town and its inhabitants, beheld this resolution with astonishment. He intimated more than once, by means of the prisoners whom he re- leased, his willingness to grant them fair terms of capitulation.

Day after day he fully expected his proffers would be accepted. But day after day he was disappointed. But on their part we never perceived a sign of such intention. It seemed certain that, with this strict blockade, the crowded population must in the end be driven to capitulate, though no arm should be raised against them.

But it required time ; and the Span- iards, though constant and enduring by nature, be- gan to be impatient of hardships scarcely inferior to those experienced by the besieged.

In some re- spects their condition was even worse, exposed as they were to the cold, drenching rains, which fell with little intermission, rendering their situation dreary and disastrous in the extreme. In this state of things, there were many who would willingly have shortened their suiFerings and taken the chance of carrying the place by a coup de main. This place, encompassed by spacious por- ticoes, would furnish accommodations for a nmnerous host; and, once established in the capital, the Spaniards would be in a position to follow up the blow with far more effect than at a distance.

These arguments were pressed by several of the officers, particularly by Alderete, the royal treas- urer, a person of much consideration, not only from his rank, but from the capacity and zeal he had shown in the service. In deference to their wishes, Cortes summoned a council of war, and laid the matter before it. The treasurer's views were espoused by most of the high-mettled cavaliers, who looked with eagerness to any change of their present forlorn and wearisome life; and Cortes, thinking it, probably, more prudent to adopt the less expedient course than to enforce a cold and re- luctant obedience to his own opinion, suffered him- self to be overruled.

Sandoval was instructed to draw off the greater part of his forces from the northern causeway and to unite himself with Alvarado, while seventy picked ' Such is the account explicitly given by Cortes to the emperor. Bernal Diaz, on the contrary, speaks of the assault as first conceived by the general himself. Hist, de la Conquista, cap. Yet Diaz had not the best means of knowing; and Cort6s would hardly have sent home a palpable misstatement that could have been so easily exposed. On the appointed morning, the two armies, after the usual celebration of mass, advanced along their respective causeways against the city.

After clearing the suburbs, three avenues presented themselves, which all terminated in the square of Tlatelolco. The principal one, being of much greater width than the other two, might rather be called a cause- way than a street, since it was flanked by deep ca- nals on either side. Cortes divided his force into three bodies. One of them he placed under Alde- rete, with orders to occupy the principal street. A second he gave in charge to Andres de Tapia and Jorge de Alvarado ; the former a cavalier of cour- age and capacity, the latter a younger brother of Don Pedro, and possessed of the intrepid spirit which belonged to that chivalrous family.

These were to penetrate by one of the parallel streets, while the general himself, at the head of the third division, was to occupy the other. The neglect of this precaution by Alvarado, in an assault which he had made on the city but a few days before, had been attended with such serious consequences to his army that Cortes rode over, himself, to his officer's quarters, for the purpose of publicly reprimanding him for his disobedience of orders. On his arrival at the camp, however, he found that his offending captain had conducted the affair with so much gal- lantry, that the intended reprimand — though well deserved — subsided into a mild rebuke.

Cortes, dismounting, took the van of his own squadron, at the head of his infantry. The JNIexi- cans fell back as he advanced, making less resist- ance than usual. The Spaniards pushed on, car- rying one barricade after another, and carefully filling up the gaps with rubbish, so as to secure ' In the treasurer's division, according to the general's Letter, there were 70 Spanish foot, 7 or 8 horse, and 15, or 20, In- dians; in Tapia's, 80 foot, and 10, allies; and in his own, 8 horse, infantry, and "an infinite number of allies.

The looseness of the language shows that a few thousands more or less were of no great moment in the estimate of the Indian forces. Y visto, no les impute tanta culpa, como antes pare- cia tener, y platicado cerca de lo que hal ia de hacer, yo me bolvi d nuestro Real aquel dia.

The canoes supported the attack, by moving along the canals and grappling with those of the enemy; while numbers of the nimble-footed Tlascalans, scaling the terraces, passed on from one house to another, where they were connected, hurling the defenders into the streets below. The enemy, taken apparently by surprise, seemed incapable of withstanding for a moment the fury of the assault ; and the victorious Christians, cheered on by the shouts of triumph which arose from their companions in the adjoining streets, were only the more eager to be first at the destined goal.

Indeed, the facility of his success led the general to suspect that he might be advancing too fast; that it might be a device of the enemy to draw them into the heart of the city and then surround or at- tack them in the rear. He had some misgivings, moreover, lest his too ardent officers, in the heat of the chase, should, notwithstanding his commands, have overlooked the necessary precaution of filling up the breaches.

He accordingly brought his squadron to a halt, prepared to baffle any insidious movement of his adversary. Meanwhile he re- ceived more than one message from Alderete, in- forming him that he had nearly gained the market. This only increased the general's apprehension that, in the rapidity of his advance, he might have neglected to secure the ground.

He determined to trust no eyes but his own, and, taking a small body of troops, proceeded at once to reconnoitre the route followed by the treasurer. A feeble attempt had been made to stop the gap with the rubbish of the causeway, but in too careless a manner to be of the least ser- vice; and a few straggling stones and pieces of timber only showed that the work had been aban- doned almost as soon as begun.

He saw in all this the artifice of the cunning enemy, and had little doubt that his hot-headed officer had rushed into a snare deliberately laid for him. Deeply alarmed, he set about repairing the mis- chief as fast as possible, by ordering his men to fill up the yawning chasm. But they had scarcely begun their labors, when the hoarse echoes of conflict in the distance were succeeded by a hideous sound of mingled yells and war-whoops, that seemed to rend the very heavens. His conjecture proved too true. Alderete had followed the retreating Aztecs with an eagerness which increased with every step of his advance.

He had carried the barricades which had defended the breach, without much difficulty, and, as he swept on, gave orders that the opening should be stopped. But the blood of the high-spirited cav- aliers was warmed by the chase, and no one cared to be detained by the ignoble occupation of filling up the ditches, while he could gather laurels so easily in the fight; and they all pressed on, exhort- ing and cheering one another with the assurance of being the first to reach the square of Tlatelolco.

In this way they suffered themselves to be decoyed into the heart of the city ; when suddenly the horn of Guatemozin — the sacred symbol, heard only in seasons of extraordinary peril — sent forth a long and piercing note from the summit of a neighbor- ing teocalli. In an instant, the flying Aztecs, as if maddened by the blast, wheeled about, and turned on their pursuers.

At the same time, countless swarms of warriors from the adjoining streets and lanes poured in upon the flanks of the assailants, filling the air with the fierce, unearthly cries which had reached the ears of Cortes, and drowning, for a moment, the wild dissonance which reigned in the other quarters of the capital.

Friends and foes, white men and Indians, were mingled together in one promiscuous mass. Spears, swords, and war-clubs were brandished together in the air. Blows fell at random. In their eagerness to escape, they trod down one an- other. Blinded by the missiles which now rained on them from the azoteas, they staggered on, scarcely knowing in what direction, or fell, struck down by hands which they could not see. On they came, like a rushing torrent sweeping along some steep declivity, and rolling in one confused tide towards the open breach, on the farther side of which stood Cortes and his companions, horror- struck at the sight of the approaching ruin.

The foremost soon plunged into the gulf, treading one another under the flood, some striving ineffectually to swim, others, with more success, to clamber over the heaps of their suffocated comrades. Many, as they attempted to scale the opposite sides of the slippery dike, fell into the water, or were hurried off by the warriors in the canoes, who added to the horrors of the rout by the fresh storm of darts and javelins which they poured on the fugitives.

Cortes, meanwhile, with his brave followers, kept his station undaunted on the other side of the breach. He as vainly tried to restore something like presence of mind and order among the dis- tracted fugitives. His person was too well known to the Aztecs, and his position now made him a con- spicuous mark for their weapons.

Darts, stones, and arrows fell around him thick as hail, but glanced harmless from his steel helmet and armor of proof. At length a cry of " Malinche," " Ma- linche," arose among the enemy; and six of their number, strong and athletic warriors, rushing on him at once, made a violent eiFort to drag him on board their boat. In the struggle he received a severe wound in the leg, which, for the time, dis- abled it.

There seemed to be no hope for him; when a faithful follower, Cristoval de Olea, per- ceiving his general's extremity, threw himself on the Aztecs, and with a blow cut off the arm of one savage, and then plunged his sword in the body of another. He was quickly supported by a comrade named Lerma, and by a Tlascalan chief, who, fighting over the prostrate body of Cortes, de- spatched three more of the assailants; though the heroic Olea paid dearly for his self-devotion, as he fell mortally wounded by the side of his general. CONQUEST OF MEXICO The report soon spread among the soldiers that their commander was taken; and Quinones, the captain of his guard, with several others, pouring in to the rescue, succeeded in disentangling Cortes from the grasp of his enemies, who were struggling with him in the water, and, raising him in their arms, placed him again on the causeway.

One of his pages, meanwhile, had advanced some way through the press, leading a horse for his master to mount. But the youth received a wound in the throat from a javelin, which prevented him from effecting his object. Another of his attendants was more successful. It was Guzman, his cham- berlain; but, as he held the bridle while Cortes was he says, on one of the gates of a monastery of Tlatelolco, long re- corded the fact that it was the Tezcucan chief who saved the life of Cortes. Venida de los Espanoles, p.

But Camargo gives the full credit of it to Olea, on the testimony of " a famous Tlas- calan warrior," present in the action, who reported it to him. Hist, de Tlascala, MS. The same is stoutly maintained by Bernal Diaz, townsman of Olea, to whose memory he pays a hearty tribute, as one of the best men and bravest soldiers in the army. Saavedra, the poetic chronicler, — some- thing more of a chronicler than poet, — who came on the stage be- fore all that had borne arms in the Conquest had left it, gives the laurel also to Olea, whose fate he commemorates in verses that at least aspire to historic fidelity: Las dos manos a cercen le ha cortado, Y el le librd del trance trabajoso Huuo muy gran rumor, porqiie dezian.

Que ya en prision amarf? Antonio de Quinones llego luego, Capitan de la guarda ardiendo en fuego. The general still lin- gered, unwilling to leave the spot while his pres- ence could be of the least service. But the faithful Quinones, taking his horse by the bridle, turned his head from the breach, exclaiming, at the same time, that " his master's life was too important to the army to be thrown away there.

The surface of the causeway, cut up by the feet of men and horses, was knee- deep in mud, and in some parts was so much broken that the water from the canals flowed over it. The crowded mass, in their efforts to extricate them- selves from their perilous position, staggered to and fro like a drunken man.

Those on the flanks were often forced by the lateral pressure of their comrades down the slippery sides of the dike, where they were picked up by the canoes of the enemy, whose shouts of triumph proclaimed the savage joy with which they gathered in every new victim for the sacrifice. Two cavaliers, riding by the general's side, lost their footing, and rolled down the declivity into the water.

One was taken and his horse killed. The other was happy enough to escape. The valiant ensign, Corral, had a simi- lar piece of good fortune. He slipped into the ' " E aquel Capitan que estaba con el General, que se decia Antonio de Quinones, dixole: Vamos, Senor, de aquf, y salvemos vuestra Per- sona, pues que ya esto esta de manera, que es morir desesperado aten- der; e sin vos, ninguno de nosotros puede escapar, que no es esfuerzo, sino poquedad, porfiar aqui otra cosa.

The barbarians set up a cry of dis- appointed rage as they lost possession of a trophy to which the people of Anahuac attached, as we have seen, the highest importance, hardly inferior in their eyes to the capture of the commander-in- chief himself. Here, under a sharp fire of the artillery, he rallied his broken squadrons, and, charging at the head of the little body of horse, which, not having been brought into action, were still fresh, he beat off the enemy.

He then commanded the retreat of the two other divisions. The scattered forces again united ; and the general, sending forward his Indian confederates, took the rear with a chosen body of cavalry to cover the re- treat of the army, which was effected with but Mttle additional loss. Meanwhile the two " It may have been the same banner which is noticed by Mr. Bullock as treasured up in the Hospital of Jesus, " where," says he, " we beheld the identical embroidered standard under which the great captain wrested this immense empire from the unfortunate Montezuma.

Cheered by the triumphant shouts of their countrymen in the adjacent streets, they had pushed on with ex- traordinary vigor, that they might not be out- stripped in the race of glory. The two captains now un- derstood that the day must have gone hard with their countrymen. Indeed, it was not in their power to maintain their ground against the furious assaults of the be- sieged, who poured on them, swarm after swarm, with a desperation of which, says one who was " " El resonido de la corneta de Guatemuz. Non puo trovarsi al mondo un cor si buono, Che possa non fuggir come lo sente.

Rumor di vento e di tremuoto, e '1 tuono, A par del suon di questo, era niente. God alone could have brought us off safe from the perils of that day. Thus galled in front and on flank, the shattered columns of the Aztecs were compelled to give way and take shelter under the defences of the city. The greatest anxiety now prevailed in the camp regarding the fate of Cortes; for Tapia had been detained on the road by scattered parties of the en- emy, whom Guatemozin had stationed there to in- terrupt the communication between the camps.

He arrived at length, however, though bleeding from several wounds. His intelligence, while it reassured the Spaniards as to the general's per- sonal safety, was not calculated to allay their un- easiness in other respects. Sandoval, in particular, was desirous to acquaint himself with the actual state of things and the fur- ther intentions of Cortes. It was mid-day — for the busy scenes of the morning had occupied but a few hours — when Sandoval remounted the good steed on whose strength and speed he knew he could rely.

It was a noble animal, well known throughout the army, and worthy of its gallant rider, whom it had carried safe through all the long marches and bloody battles of the Conquest. On arriving at the camp, he found the troops there much worn and dispirited by the disaster of the morning. They had good reason to be so. Be- sides the killed, and a long file of wounded, sixty- two Spaniards, with a multitude of allies, had fallen alive into the hands of the enemy, — an en- emy who was never known to spare a captive.

The loss of two field-pieces and seven horses crowned their own disgrace and the triumph of the Aztecs. This loss, so insignificant in European warfare, was a great one here, where both horses and artil- lery, the most powerful arms of war against the " This renowned steed, who might rival the Babieca of the Cid, was named Motilla, and, when one would pass unqualified praise on a horse, he would say, " He is as good as Motilla.

He was of a chestnut color, it seems, with a star in his forehead, and, luckily for his credit, with only one foot white. See Hist, de la Conquista, cap, , The only time he was seen to falter was when the Mexicans threw down before him the heads of several Spaniards, shouting, at the same time, " Sandoval," " Tonatiuh," the well- known epithet of Alvarado. At the sight of the gory trophies he grew deadly pale; but, in a mo- ment recovering his usual confidence, he endeav- ored to cheer up the drooping spirits of his follow- ers.

It was with a cheerful countenance that he now received his lieutenant ; but a shade of sadness was visible through this outward composure, show- ing how the catastrophe of the puente cuidada, " the sorrowful bridge," as he mournfully called it, lay heavy at his heart. To the cavalier's anxious inquiries as to the cause of the disaster, he replied, " It is for my sins that it has befallen me, son Sandoval; " for such was the affectionate epithet with which Cortes often ad- dressed his best-beloved and trusty officer.

He then explained to him the immediate cause, in the negligence of the treasurer. Further conversation followed, in which the general declared his purpose to forego active hostilities for a few days. See, also, ante, Book II. You must watch over the safety of the camps. Give especial heed to Alvarado's. He is a gallant soldier, I know it well; but I doubt the Mexican hounds may, some hour, take him at disadvan- tage. The future con- queror of Guatemala had to gather wisdom, as usual, from the bitter fruits of his own errors.

It was under the training of Cortes that he learned to be a soldier. The general, having concluded his instructions, affectionately embraced his lieuten- ant, and dismissed him to his quarters. It was late in the afternoon when he reached them; but the sun was still lingering above the western hills, and poured his beams wide over the Valley, lighting up the old towers and temples of Tenochtitlan with a mellow radiance, that little harmonized with the dark scenes of strife in which the city had so lately been involved. They there beheld a long procession wind- ing up the huge sides of the pyramid; for the camp of Alvarado was pitched scarcely a mile from the city, and objects are distinctly visible at a great distance in the transparent atmosphere of the table-land.

As the long file of priests and warriors reached the flat summit of the teocalli , the Spaniards saw the figures of several men stripped to their waists, some of whom, by the whiteness of their skins, they recognized as their own countrymen. They were the victims for sacrifice. Their heads were gaudily decorated with coronals of plumes, and they car- ried fans in their hands. They were urged along by blows, and compelled to take part in the dances in honor of the Aztec war-god. The unfortunate captives, then stripped of their sad finery, were stretched, one after another, on the great stone of sacrifice.

On its convex surface their breasts were heaved up conveniently for the diabolical purpose of the priestly executioner, who cut asunder the ribs by a strong blow with his sharp razor of itztli, and, thrusting his hand into the wound, tore away " " Vn atanibor de miiy triste sonido, enfin como instrumento de demonios, y rettimbaua tanto, que se oia dos, 6 tres leguas.

The body of the slaughtered victim was then hurled down the steep stairs of the pyramid, which, it may be re- membered, were placed at the same angle of the pile, one flight below another; and the mutilated remains were gathered up by the savages beneath, who soon prepared with them the cannibal repast which completed the work of abomination! Like vultures maddened by the smell of distant carrion, they set up a piercing cry, and, as they shouted that " such should be the fate of all their enemies," swept along in one fierce tor- rent over the dike.

But the Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise; and, before the barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly fire from their battery of heavy guns, supported by the musketry and cross-bows, that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly, but fearfully mangled, to their former position. The five following days passed away in a state of inaction, except, indeed, so far as was neces- sary to repel the sorties made from time to time by the militia of the capital. The Mexicans, elated with their success, meanwhile, abandoned them- selves to jubilee; singing, dancing, and feasting on the mangled relics of their wretched victims.

Guatemozin sent several heads of the Spaniards, " At least, such is the honest confession of Captain Diaz, as stout- hearted a soldier as any in the army. He consoles himself, however, with the reflection that the tremor of his limbs intimated rather an excess of courage than a want of it, since it arose from a lively sense of the great dangers into which his daring spirit was about to hurry him! The passage in the original affords a good specimen of the inimitable iiaivetS of the old chronicler: The priests now cheered the young monarch and the people with the decla- ration that the dread Huitzilopochtli, their of- fended deity, appeased by the sacrifices offered up on his altars, would again take the Aztecs under his protection, and deliver their enemies, before the expiration of eight days, into their hands.

However it may have been contemned by the Spaniards, it had a very different effect on their allies. The latter had begun to be disgusted with a service so full of peril and suffering and already protracted far beyond the usual term of Indian hostilities. They had less confidence than before in the Spaniards. Experience had shown that they were neither invincible nor immortal, and their re- cent reverses made them even distrust the ability of the Christians to reduce the Aztec metropolis.

They recalled to mind the ominous words of Xico- tencatl, that " so sacrilegious a war could come to no good for the people of Anahuac. The prediction of the oracle fell heavy on their hearts. They had little doubt of its ful- " Herrera, Hist, general, dec. They took advantage, therefore, of the friendly cover of night to steal away from their quarters.

Company after company deserted in this manner, taking the direction of their respective homes. Those belonging to the great towns of the Valley, whose allegiance was the most recent, were the first to cast it oif. Their example was followed by the older confederates, the militia of Cholula, Tepeaca, Tezcuco, and even the faithful Tlascala. There were, it is true, some exceptions to these, and among them Ixtlilxochitl, the young lord of Tez- cuco, and Chichemecatl, the valiant Tlascalan chieftain, who, with a few of their immediate fol- lowers, still remained true to the banner under which they had enlisted.

But their number was insignificant. The Spaniards beheld with dismay the mighty array, on which they relied for support, thus silently melting away before the breath of superstition. Cortes alone maintained a cheerful countenance. He treated the prediction with con- tempt, as an invention of the priests, and sent his messengers after the retreating squadrons, be- seeching them to postpone their departure, or at least to halt on the road, till the time, which would soon elapse, should show the falsehood of the prophecy.

The affairs of the Spaniards at this crisis must be confessed to have worn a gloomy aspect. De- serted by their allies, with their ammunition nearly exhausted, cut oiF from the customary supplies ] DEFECTION OF THE ALLIES 57 from the neighborhood, harassed by unintermit- ting vigils and fatigues, smarting under wounds, of which every man in the army had his share, with an unfriendly country in their rear and a mortal foe in front, they might well be excused for falter- ing in their enterprise.

They found abundant occupation by day in foraging the country, and in maintaining their position on the causeways against the enemy, now made doubly daring by success and by the promises of their priests ; while at night their slumbers were disturbed by the beat of the melancholy drum, the sounds of which, booming far over the waters, tolled the knell of their murdered comrades. Night after night fresh victims were led up to the great altar of sacrifice ; and, while the city blazed with the illumination of a thousand bonfires on the terraced roofs of the dwellings and in the areas of the temples, the dis- mal pageant, showing through the fiery glare like the work of the ministers of hell, was distinctly visible from the camp below.

One of the last of the sufferers was Guzman, the unfortunate cham- berlain of Cortes, who lingered in captivity eight- een days before he met his doom. En fin, cosas diabdlicas, y tenia grandes lumbres, y daua gradissi- mos gritos, y siluos, y en aquel instate estauan sacrificando de nues- tros copaneros, de los q tomaro d Cortes, que supimos q sacrifica- ron diez dias arreo, hasta que los acabaron, y el postrero dexar5 d 68 CONQUEST OF MEXICO falter.

Had they faltered, they might have learned a lesson of fortitude from some of their own wives, who continued with them in the camp, and who displayed a heroism, on this occasion, of which history has preserved several examples. One of these, protected by her husband's armor, would frequently mount guard in his place when he was wearied. Another, hastily putting on a soldier's escaujnl and seizing a sword and lance, was seen, on one occasion, to rally their retreating country- men and lead them back against the enemy.

Cortes would have persuaded these Amazonian dames to remain at Tlascala; but they proudly replied, " It was the duty of Castilian wives not to abandon their husbands in danger, but to share it with them, — and die with them, if necessary. They relaxed in no degree the severity of the blockade. Their camps still occupied the only avenues to the city; and their batteries, sweeping the long defiles at every fresh assault of the Aztecs, mowed down hundreds of the assailants. The historian has embalmed the names of several of these heroines in his pages, who are, doubtless, well entitled to share the honors of the Conquest: It is true, indeed, the loss of the auxiliary canoes left a passage open for the occasional intro- duction of supplies to the capital.

It was a great mis- take of the Aztec priests — one not uncommon with false prophets, anxious to produce a startling im- pression on their followers — to assign so short a term for the fulfilment of their prediction. The Tlascalans, who had halted on the way, returned, ashamed of their credulity, and with ancient feelings of animosity heightened by the artifice of which they had been the dupes.

In a short time the Spanish general found himself at the head of an auxiliary force which, if not so numerous as before, was more than adequate to all his purposes. He received them with politic benignity ; and, while he reminded them that they had been guilty of a great crime in thus abandoning their commander, he was willing to overlook it in consideration of their past services.

They must be aware that these services were not necessary to the Spaniards, who had carried on the siege with the same vigor during their absence as when they were present. But he was unwilling that those who had shared the dangers of the war with him should not also partake its triumphs, and be present at the fall of their enemy, which he promised, with a confidence better founded than that of the priests in their prediction, should not be long delayed.

Yet the menaces and machinations of Guatemo- zin were still not without effect in the distant prov- inces. Before the full return of the confederates, Cortes received an embassy from Cuernavaca, ten or twelve leagues distant, and another from some friendly towns of the Otomies, still farther off, imploring his protection against their formidable neighbors, who menaced them with hostilities as al- lies of the Spaniards.

As the latter were then situated, they were in a condition to receive succor much more than to give it. But Cortes knew the importance, above all, of not betraying his own in- ability to grant it. They each met and defeated his ad- versary in a pitched battle, laid waste the hostile territories, and returned within the time prescribed. They were soon followed by ambassadors from the conquered places, soliciting the alliance of the Spaniards; and the affair terminated by an acces- sion of new confederates, and, what was more im- portant, a conviction in the old that the Spaniards were both willing and competent to protect them.

Customers Also Bought

Fortune, who seldom dispenses her frowns or her favors single-handed, further showed her good will to the Spaniards, at this time, by sending a vessel into Vera Cruz laden with ammunition and mili- tary stores. It was part of the fleet destined for '"God knows," says the general, "the peril in which we all stood; pero como nos convenia mostrar mas esfuerzo y animo, que nunca, y morir peleando, disimulabarnos nuestra flaqueza assi con los Amigos como con los Enemigos.

The cargo was immediately taken by the authorities of the port, and forwarded, with- out delay, to the camp, where it arrived most sea- sonably, as the want of powder, in particular, had begun to be seriously felt. In the former deliberations on the subject, two courses, as we have seen, presented themselves to the general. One was to intrench himself in the heart of the capital and from this point carry on hostilities; the other was the mode of proceeding hitherto followed. Both were open to serious ob- jections, which he hoped would be obviated by the one now adopted.

This was to advance no step without securing the entire safety of the army, not only on its immediate retreat, but in its future in- roads. Every breach in the causeway, every canal in the streets, was to be filled up in so solid a man- ner that the work should not be again disturbed.

The materials for this were to be furnished by the buildings, every one of which, as the army ad- vanced, whether public or private, hut, temple, or palace, was to be demolished! Not a building in their path was to be spared. It was probably the expedition in which Ponce de Leon lost his life; an expedition to the very land which the chivalrous cavalier had himself first visited in quest of the Fountain of Health.

The story is pleasantly told by Irving, as the reader may remember, in his " Companions of Columbus. But in a place where every house was a fortress and every street was cut up by canals so embarrassing to his movements, experience proved it was vain to think of doing so and becoming master of it. There was as little hope of a peaceful accommoda- tion with the Aztecs, who, so far from being broken by all they had hitherto endured, and the long per- spective of future woes, showed a spirit as haughty and implacable as ever.

Cortes him- self set the example by carrying stones and timber with his own hands. The Mexicans did not look with indifference on these preparations to lay waste their town and leave them bare and unprotected against the enemy. They made incessant efforts to impede the labors of the besiegers ; but the latter, under cover of their guns, which kept up an unintermitting fire, still ad- vanced in the work of desolation.

Famine, with all her hideous train of woes, was making rapid strides among its accu- mulated population. The stores provided for the siege were exhausted. The casual supply of hu- man victims, or that obtained by some straggling pirogue from the neighboring shores, was too in- considerable to be widely felt. But the page of history has many an example to show that there are no limits to the endurance of which humanity is capable, when ani- mated by hatred and despair.

With the sword thus suspended over it, the Spanish conmiander, desirous to make one more effort to save the capital, persuaded three Aztec nobles, taken in one of the late actions, to bear a message from him to Guatemozin; though they imdertook it with reluctance, for fear of the conse- quences to themselves. There remained no hope, no chance of escape, for the Mexicans. Their provisions were exhausted; their communi- cations were cut off; their vassals had deserted them; even their gods had betrayed them. They stood alone, with the nations of Anahuac banded against them.

There was no hope but in immediate surrender. The past shall be forgotten. The per- sons and property, in short, all the rights, of the Aztecs shall be respected. You shall be confirmed in your authority, and Spain will once more take your city under her protection. But, though his bosom glowed with the fiery temper of the Indian, he had the qualities of a " gentle cavalier," says one of his enemies, who knew him well. Some were for accepting the proposals, as offering the only chance of preservation.

But the priests took a different " Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. They knew that the ruin of their own order must follow the triumph of Chris- tianity. Better, if need be, give up our lives at once for our country, than drag them out in slavery and suffering among the false strangers. Let no man, henceforth, who values his life, talk of surrender. We can at least die like warriors.

Pues assi quereis que sea, guardad mucho el maiz, y bastimentos que tenemos, y muramos todos peleando: At length it came, in a general sortie of the Mexicans, who, pouring through every gate of the capital, like a river that has burst its banks, swept on, wave upon wave, to the very in- trenchments of the besiegers, threatening to over- whelm them by their numbers. Fortunately, the position of the latter on the dikes secured their flanks, and the narrowness of the defile gave their small battery of guns all the advantages of a larger one.

The fire of artillery and musketry blazed without intermission along the several causeways, belching forth volumes of sulphurous smoke, that, rolling heavily over the water, settled dark around the Indian city and hid it from the surrounding country. The brigantines thundered, at the same time, on the flanks of the columns, which, after some ineffectual efforts to maintain themselves, rolled back in wild confusion, till their impotent fury died away in sullen murmurs within the capi- tal.

Cortes now steadily pursued the plan he had laid down for the devastation of the city. Day after day the several armies entered by their respective quarters, Sandoval probably directing his opera- tions against the northeastern district. The build- ings, made of the porous tetzontli, though gener- ally low, were so massy and extensive, and the canals were so numerous, that their progress was necessarily slow.

The latter raged with impotent anger as they beheld their lordly edifices, their temples, all they had been accustomed to venerate, thus ruthlessly swept away; their canals, constructed with so much labor and what to them seemed science, filled up with rubbish ; their flourishing city, in short, turned into a desert, over which the insulting foe now rode tri- umphant. They heaped many a taunt on the In- dian allies. If we conquer, you shall build for us ; and if your white friends conquer, they will make you do as much for them.

In their rage they rushed blindly on the corps which covered the Indian pioneers. But they were as often driven back by the impetuous charge of the cavalry, or received on the long pikes of Chi- nantla, which did good service to the besiegers in their operations. At the close of day, however, when the Spaniards drew off their forces, taking care to send the multitudinous host of confederates first from the ground, the Mexicans usually rallied for a more formidable attack.

Then they poured out from every lane and by-way, like so many mountain streams, sweeping over the broad level " " Los de la Ciudad como veian tanto estrago, por esforzarse, decian d nuestros Amigos, que no ficiessen sino quemar, y destruir, que ellos se las harian tornar a hacer de nuevo, porque si ellos eran vencedores, ya ellos sabian, que habia de ser assi, y si no, que las habian de hacer para nosotros. Tare, de C6rtes, ap. At such times they inflicted considerable loss in their turn, till an ambush, which Cortes laid for them among the buildings adjoin- ing the great temple, did them so much mischief that they were compelled to act with more reserve.

At times the war displayed something of a chiv- alrous character, in the personal rencontres of the combatants. These combats were usually conducted on the azoteas, whose broad and level surface afl'orded a good field of fight. On one occasion, a Mexican of power- ful frame, brandishing a sword and buckler which he had won from the Christians, defied his enemies to meet him in single fight.

A young page of Cortes', named Nunez, obtained his master's per- mission to accept the vaunting challenge of the Aztec, and, springing on the azotea, succeeded, after a hard struggle, in discomfiting his antago- nist, who fought at a disadvantage with weapons in which he was unpractised, and, running him through the body, brought off his spoils in triumph and laid them at the general's feet. It was a spacious stone pile, that might well be " Rel. Though deserted by its royal master, it was held by a strong body of Aztecs, who made a temporary defence, but of little avail against the battering enginery of the besiegers.

It was soon set on fire, and its crumbling walls were levelled in the dust, like those other stately edifices of the capital, the boast and admiration of the Az- tecs, and some of the fairest fi-uits of their civili- zation. During this time the blockade had been maintained with the utmost rigor, and the wretched inhabitants were suffering all the extremities of famine.

Some few stragglers were taken, from time to time, in the neighborhood of the Christian camp, whither they had wandered in search of food. They were kindly treated, by command of Cortes, who was in hopes to induce others to follow their example, and thus to afford a means of con- ciliating the inhabitants, which might open the way to their submission. But few were found willing to leave the shelter of the capital, and they preferred to take their chance with their suffering country- men rather than trust themselves to the mercies of the besiegers. From these few stragglers, however, the Span- " " No se entendi6 sino en quemar, y hallanar Casas, que era Ids- tima cjerto de lo ver; pero como no nos convenia hacer otra cosa, eramos forzado seguir aquella 6rden.

All the ordinary means of sustenance had long since failed, and they now supported life as they could, by means of such roots as they could dig from the earth, by gnawing the bark of trees, by feeding on the grass,— on anything, in short, however loath- some, that could allay the craving of appetite. Their only drink was the brackish water of the soil saturated with the salt lake. Men sickened and died every day, in all the excruciating torments produced by hunger, and the wan and emaciated survivors seemed only to be waiting for their time.

The Spaniards had visible confirmation of all this as they penetrated deeper into the city and ap- proached the district of Tlatelolco, now occupied by the besieged. They found the ground turned up in quest of roots and weeds, the trees stripped of their green stems, their foliage, and their bark.

Troops of famished Indians flitted in the distance, gliding like ghosts among the scenes of their for- mer residence. Dead bodies lay unburied in the streets and court-yards, or filled up the canals. It was a sure sign of the extremity of the Aztecs ; for they held the burial of the dead as a solemn and " " No tenian agua dulce para beber, ni para de ninguna manera de comer ; bebian del agua salada y hedionda, comian ratones y lagar- tijas, y cortezas de arboles, y otras cosas no comestibles; y de esta causa enfermdron muchos, y murieron muchos.

In the early part of the siege they had religiously attended to it. In its later stages they were still careful to withdraw the dead from the public eye, by bringing their remains within the houses. But the number of these, and their own sufferings, had now so fearfully in- creased that they had grown indifferent to this, and they suffered their friends and their kinsmen to lie and moulder on the spot where they drew their last breath!

Clavigero considers that it was a scheme of the Mexicans to leave the dead unburied, in order that the stench might annoy and drive off the Spaniards. But this policy would have operated much more to the detriment of the besieged than of the besiegers, whose presence in the capital was but transitory. It is much more natural to refer it to the same cause which has led to a similar conduct under similar circumstances elsewhere, whether occasioned by pestilence or famine.

The Spanish commander issued strict orders that mercy should be shown to these poor and disabled victims. But the Indian allies made no distinction. An Aztec, under whatever circumstances, was an enemy ; and, with hideous shouts of triumph, they pulled down the burning buildings on their heads, consuming the living and the dead in one common funeral pile! Yet the sufferings of the Aztecs, terrible as they were, did not incline them to submission. There were many, indeed, who, from greater strength of constitution, or from the more favorable circum- stances in which they were placed, still showed all their wonted energy of body and mind, and main- tained the same undaunted and resolute demeanor as before.

They were indefatigable in nursing the sick and dressing their wounds ; they aided the warriors in battle, by supplying them with the Indian ammunition of stones and arrows, prepared their slings, strung their bows, and displayed, in short, all the con- stancy and courage shown by the noble maidens of "Gonzalo de las Casas, Defensa, MS.

A single canal only lay in his way; but this was of great width and stoutly de- fended by the Mexican archery. At this crisis, the army one evening, while in their intrenchments on the causeway, were surprised by an uncommon light that arose from the huge teocalli in that part of the city which, being at the north, was the most distant from their own position. This temple, dedicated to the dread war-god, was inferior only to the pyramid in the great square; and on it the Spaniards had more than once seen their unhappy countrymen led to slaughter.

De los ingenios paneleros y azucareros se paso a modemas empresas azucareras. Algunos quisieron comprar la tierra a los pequenos propietarios. No falto quienes amenazaron a los que no quenan vender, con quitarles al agua. Como no podian producir su platano, su maiz, ni su cacao sin agua, tuvieron que aceptar. Gracias a la cana podemos comer dulces: Mi madrina me regia todos los anos, para el 29 de junio, dfa de San Pedro y San Pablo, una maceta.

La compra a dona Sixta, en la colina de San Antonio en Cali. Antes de irnos a dormir me canto este "porro son". So hijo de colono llanero. Mis padres tienen una finca en Casanare. Ay, si si el orgullo del llanero Ay, si si yo te lo voy a contar buen caballo buena silla buena soga pa' enlazar. Luis Rey Me gusta el llano. Yo se de trabajos de vaquerfas, de domas de potros, de coleos, de contrapunteos, de coplas, de arpas y de danzas como el joropo y el galeron.

Los galerones se cantaban cuando arreaban el ganado. Un jinete puntero encabezaba la marcha llevando al toro "padron". Si el toro dudaba al cruzar un no, las reses se arremolinaban y escapaban. Los vaqueros no podian oponerse porque los aplastaban. Entonces segufan a la tropa y comenzaban a cantar. Despues de varios kilometros detenfan su canto. Las reses que se habfan acostumbrado a escucharlo, cuando dejaban de ofrlo se detenfan. Los vaqueros volvfan a tomar al toro y recomenzaban la marcha.

Eduardo Carranza es un poeta que nacio en los Llanos. Escribio esta poesfa llamada Galeron: Cuando la tierra continue mis venas hacia la rosa roja y el turpial, el no, la lima y el jacarandd. Cuando ya solo el Llano me recuerde con una palma. Cuando una venada me adivine en el temblor del viento entre la yerba, cuando para nombrarme, de repente, vuele del pecho abierto del Ariari gavildn.

Quiero que bailes, bailes sobre el polvo que ha de contar mi historia enardecida, entre la luz y el viento que me oyeron, sobre la tierra que nos vio, que bailes piernas desnudas, pelo delirante un galeron. Tambien se de leyendas. Dicen que en los plenilunios la indiecita Mapiripana, abanicandose con una hoja de palmera, pasa navegando por el no Orinoco en una concha de tortuga.

Hace muchos ahos llego un misionero que quiso capturar a la indiecita Mapiripana. Escondido en la playa, la vio llegar con su vestido de telarahas. Siguio sus pasos y sin darse cuenta sefue internando en una caverna. Alii, en castigo, quedo encerrado muchos ahos. Un dia logro fugarse por el rio. La indiecita al saberlo puso piedras y creo los raudales. El rio comenzo a bajar violentamente como por unos escalones.

Al llegar al raudal de Maipures el misionero se atemorizo. Arrepentido regreso a la cueva. AlU encontro a Mapiripana columpiandose entre enredaderas florecidas. Ella lo perdono y el dedico el resto de su vida a la oracion. Cuando murid se transformo en una mariposa de inmensas alas azules. Cuentan que a los que mueren de fiebre en esa region, se les aparece la mariposa. Y ahora me despido con esta copla: Los alumnos hacen una investigacion de Colombia utilizando Internet como fuente de informacion.

El maestro les da diferentes direcciones como guia para que realicen dicha investigacion. Esto se puede realizar dentro del tiempo de la clase si se cuenta con el equipo necesario o se puede dejar como tarea. Ejemplos de direcciones de Internet: Los alumnos entregaran un reporte de una pagina acerca de la informacion encontrada. Fradel United States Department Of Education Fullbright-FIays Program in cooperation with Comision Fullbright Colombia October 25, The three lessons on Colombia are intended to introduce Colombia to middle school students much in the same way we as educators would introduce any country.

Students, if they have any view, will tend to view Colombia very stereotypically. Emphasis is placed on facts and their interpretation so that students will have a base of knowledge about Colombia which is not tied to the drug trade, poverty, or violence. All three can be found in Colombia but these aspects do not represent the aspirations of the people of the country.

The three activities in this packet should take between four and seven days to complete. It is highly recommended that they be done in order so that each activity builds upon the knowledge gained in the previous activity. The better the quality of your references the easier you will find the activities to complete. It may be neccessary to modify some of the activities because the references available are not sufficiently detailed. If you are so fortunate as to have better references available than the author then, by all means, embellish the instructions.

There are several suggested activities at the end of this short unit. These extension activities are to give a range of ideas that could capitalize on whatever resources are available. Suggestions on additions, corrections or other improvements should be sent to the following address: Familiarize students with the principal physical features and regions of Colombia.

Review with students basic map procedures; start in pencil, include five essential elements of a map direction, title, scale, symbols, and key , follow instructions, strive for neatness and accuracy. Provide each student with map and instructions. Group students in cooperative groups. Colombia's territory is divided by three branches of the Andes Mountains. Each one of these branches is called a cordillera cord-ee- yera.

One other range of mountains are of importance in Colombia. These mountains are in the north along the coast of Colombia are called the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Locate the mountains and label each cordillera of the Andes Mountains in the space provided. Locate the mountains along the northern coast of Colombia. Label them the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the space provided. Colombia has coasts on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacif ic Ocean.

In this way it is similar to the United States by having access to both the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean for trade. Colombia has many important rivers. Using an atlas locate and label the Caribbean Sea and Pacif ic Ocean. Trace the rivers that empty into the Orinoco River- blue. Trace the rivers that empty into the Caribbean Sea- red. Trace the rivers that empty into the Amazon River- orange. Cities in Colombia have grown up in the valleys of the Andes Mountains along side the rivers.

The largest of these is Bogota. Bogota is also the capital city of Colombia. Bogota is usually shown on a map with a star. Cali and Medellin are large trade centers in the Cauca River Valley. Bucaramanga is Colombia's fourth largest city but lies further to the east. Three coastal cities have developed as ports. Using the atlas locate these cities and then neatly label each where you find the "O" symbol. Three major vegetation regions other than coastal plain and Andean Highland exist in Colombia.

Amazon Rain Forest- Starts just south of the Meta River, just east of the Eastern Cordillera and runs all the way to the southern and eastern borders of Colombia. Shade this area light green. Eastern Grasslands or Pampas - Extends from the Meta River to the Colombian border in the north and the mountains to the west.

Shade this area yellow. To the east it runs up to the Western Cordillera of the Andes. Shade this area green. Students will be able to describe the diversity of the population groups in Colombia in terms of ethnicity, religion, and culture. In cooperative groups have students complete questions Have students share their answers. Have them explain their process of how they figured out their responses.

In their groups have them complete 4 and publish their predictions on chart paper. Have each group present their predictions. Using the references it would be great if they could use the whole library have them complete the fifth activity. Then use the chart above to answer these questions: What three ancestries are common in Colombia? What groups of people in Colombia have mixed ancestry? What ancestry is shared by more people than any other in Colombia? Based on the chart lake predictions about the cultural traditions of the people of Colombia.

Make sure to address he areas of language, religion, and customs you think are effected by the ancestry of olombia's population. Use an almanac or other reference to verify if your predictions were correct. Write a ErJc 1 summarizing what you now know about the people of Colombia. Students will be able to identify the major resources and export products of Colombia. Source sheet and questions Atlas Almanac or other reference ocedure'- 1.

Provide each student with materials. In their groups have students complete activities Have students share their findings for number 3. Students can complete number 4 individually.

El escándalo del año

At first it would seem coffee production has eclined over the past ten years. This is not true. Colombia's other products have increased in alue when compared with coffee. Keep this in mind as you complete the following activities. What new exports did Colombia develop between and ? Summarize in a paragraph the changes that have occurred in Colombia's economy in the eriod shown on the graphs. Using an atlas identify where deposits of coal, oil, silver, iron, and gold are located in olombia.

Design your own symbols for each and add them to the map you worked on in the eography section of this unit. You might even try a book of dances and try a few. Illustrate it with pictures from magazines. The show uses color slides to give impressions of the great diversity that exists in Colombia. Most of the slides are my own creation. I am grateful to the Fulbright Conmission in Colombia for furnishing a complete set of slides that included areas of Colombia that our group did not personally experience.

I thank the Conmission for their furnishing such a useful educational aid. The slides show is stored in a single Kodak Carousel tray ready for projection at any time. A cassette tape scripted narration accompanies the slide show. I typed the script using information gathered during the seminar from sources to whom I now wish to express my deep appreciation.

There were so many wonderful and helpful sources and I thank them all. Hawkins and Peg Willingham at the U. Alexandra and Coinvert ir of Bogota I used a microphone to record the scripted voice narration. Then I mixed it with typical South- American music to produce a master tape that is informative and easy to listen to.

I adapt the presentation to the type of audience. For example, in my college class in Macroeconomics I use the show as we cover the topic of economic development and international economics. The economics text is our source and I get the students to relate Colombia's situation to the theoretical models in the text.

I add articles and comments from current newspapers that relate to Colombia or South America to explain why Colombia and South America is important to U. For a community group I focus on the geographic and biological diversity and the culture of the people. The project guidelines require that the slides themselves not be submitted. My -J - 56 telephone is Extension E-mail at rgaulke iavalley. There are several supplements that I use when the show is presented to general interest audiences.

It takes less than two minutes and helps create interest in the topics covered in the show. South American music sets the mood 1 music only 2 I was selected by the U. Department of Education to study the economy and culture of Colombia on a month-long Fulbright summer seminar. Bogota is at an altitude of 8, feet high in the Andean Mountains. The altitude keeps Bogota cool year-round. Most of the people live in western Colombia- many in high mountain valleys and very few in the eastern lowlands.

The new constitution is several hundred pages long and has been carefully crafted to protect the rights of its' diverse peoples. They waged war with the natives to set up colonies with the mercantilistic purpose of taking wealth from this New World. Many of those that did not die were enslaved to produce wealth for the Spanish.

The Museum was founded in and today holds more than 33, objects in trust for present and future Colombians. In the 's the Spanish built this fort in Cartagena on the 57 9 Pacific coast. Cartagena de Indias was founded in and is considered to be one of the most important cities of the Spanish era on the Caribbean coast.

The fort protected the gold being shipped to Spain. Sometimes marauding pirates attacked the city because it was a major site for the collection and storage of gold. For this he is called the liberator of America. Nearly every town in Colombia honors his memory with a "Simon Bolivar" square. Assassinations, riots, warfare, and banditry have left hundreds of thousands killed in this century. According to the U. Hundreds of thousands of poor and less skilled rural people suffer and flee for refuge to the cities every year.

They built magnif icient churches with altars covered in gold. Simon Bolivar's statue in this typical central village square with the main cathedral across the street suggests the close relationship between church and government. The constitution does guarantee freedom of worship and evangelical Christians are having a growing impact in the country.

This illuminated cross stands 80 feet tall behind the altar in the main sanctuary. Take the cable car to the white church on the mountain at the upper left for a great view of Bogota. The rural Colombians, called campesinos , have poured into the nation's cities. Many lack the skills needed for city jobs. Modern high-rise buildings contrast with city tugurios filled with poverty, unemployment, slum housing, and high crimes rates. Most of Colombia's small but wealthy and influential upper class are descended frcm early Spanish settlers.

They form a tightly knit group and earn their income frcm large land holdings, business, and industry. Traffic jams are continuous in Bogota. There is no subway or commuter rail service so taxis and buses are very economical and used extensively. Bogota is an important cultural center with theaters, museums, and art galleries. It is the center of creative talents for much of South America.

The oil industry is booming and becoming more important in Colombia's balance of trade. A private security guard ordered me not to photograph this Shell Oil headquarters building located near our hotel. Kidnapping is now a major income for guerillas. Consequently businesses are taking more measures to gain tighter security. These disruptions have not prevented oil frcm becoming a very important export. The government is improving basic health care throughout the nation. The sign in Spanish translates as a health clinic for women. Today the drug-lords have much less power due to the ongoing efforts of the Colombian government.

The current Supreme Court is now working hard to define the new constitution. It lays a blue-print for the society that Colombia hopes to be. There is a national conscience that dictates use of domestic materials like brick and clay tiles. College students stroll up the steep slope on the way to class. Seme classrooms are in the latest "Harvard" style. English is the most popular foreign language for most students. It is demanded by those businesses that deal in the global economy.

More Colombians being trained to be expert in the use of computers. These students were using the internet to complete an assignment. Soccer is even more popular than bull fighting. Unfortunately drug money is occasionaly laundered by buying soccer teams and other legitimate businesses. School children all over the nation play soccer with real dedication.

Their heros are soccer stars. All children between the ages of 7 through 11 must attend school. Homeless children from the poverty stricken tugurios roam the streets and alleys. Most are boys like those shown here. Here is the modern campus of one of Colombia's 40 universities. Students from all over the world study here and receive a world-class education. The student lounge has leather chairs for comfort and window walls for a feeling of openess. High school education is patterned after the European model and consists of six years of study.

The first four years are mandatory and the last two are taken by those preparing for university. It reminded me of my years lecturing in economics at the "Advanced" level at the exclusive private Holy Cross College in Manchester, England Professional educators are found in both the government and private religious schools. Teacher training is becoming more important as the nation attempts to increase the quality of its education system. The weman nearest the camera is an English teacher from Canada shown at lunch with her students.

Traditional music and folkdance are taught in the schools. These high school dancers performed for our group. Air travel is a major source of travel between cities. The rural mountain roads are dangerous due to unsafe bridges and occasional roving bands of guerillas Our 45 minute flight over the Andes from Bogota to Pereira would have taken over 12 hours in this truck. At least 50 of the mountains peak above 20, feet and are snow covered year round.

It was near here that our plane fell in a severe air pocket and terrified many of my fellow passengers. The mountain valleys have a long history of yielding gold. Most is "alluvium deposit gold" recovered from the sand banks of rivers and streams. Golombia produces nearly all of the emeralds in the world and most are sold to Japan. You should be careful to buy them only from government approved vendors. Part of the charm of the country is found in the capital of the department of Boyaca.

It displays a rich colonial past in its white buildings, tiled roofs, and cobblestone street. Cattle raising is an important source of income in the grassy plains. It is expanding in the eastern plains along the Orinoco river destroying vast areas of tropical rain forest. In hilly areas cattle are used to till the soil because machines are costly and not practical.

Also in the hills are over , coffee growers represented by one of the world's most recognized images — that of Juan Valdez. The steep slopes of the Andes is a paradise for coffee. Here, high altitude coupled with mild temperatures and ample rainfall, provide a kind of magic for coffee growing. The average plantation covers less than 8 acres. Almost all are owned by small farmers who work their own land without machinery and use only family labor.

The hone of this coffee grower is quite comfortable and better than most. The veranda gives a view of the steep mountain slopes and the coffee processing machinery. Juan Valdez took time out from his advertising duties and showed me how to pick coffee beans from new pest resistant coffee trees that take five years to reach full production. Juan will return to this tree many times as the berries ripen naturally.

In other countries machines strip all the berries, both green and ripe berries at the same time. That pound is all that one tree will yield in one year. Juan feeds the berries into this de-pulping machine. It hauled from farm to farm much like the old-time threshing machine circles in Iowa. The beans are spread upon a sunny, concrete patio to dry. Dried green beans are then hulled at a mill, graded, and the only the best beans are selected for export to large multinational roasters in the world market.

Coffee remains Colombia's most important export. Some efforts are being made by progessive coffee growers to diversify their inccxne by going into silk-worm production. The worms are grown on racks of mulberry leaves picked from plants intermingled with the coffee trees. The worms go through a ddormant phase before spinning their silk cacoon. The cacoons are taken to this large silk processing plant. The silk is spun onto reels and shipped to textile manufacturers around the world. This factory is based on a technological model imported from Korea.

Not far from the silk factory I saw this jeep type vehicle crowded with passengers standing where they can. In poor nations people must be creative get the most use out of the technology available. In Iowa In small villages horses are occasionally seen. Pereira is a large city in the heart of the coffee district. It is nestled among the rugged and beautiful mountains. Tropical fruits like these are delicious and abundantly available at reasonable prices in modern supermarkets and from street vendors ' carts.

The vendor will probably speak only Spanish and you should have your pesos ready. The export of fresh tropical fruit has grown in recent years and 62 mainly supply the European Economic Community. Bananas and sugar cane are also major crops. There has been significant direct foreign investment in Colombia for the production of various agricultural products. Notice that there are no screens or windows needed because the climate at this altitude in this part of Colombia is mild and relatively free of insect pests.

It reminded me very much of my living on the Hawaiian islands. This part of Colombia could attract a much larger tourist demand that it sees at present. I would love to revisit this area. Even washing the dishes, pots, and pans seemed like a pleasant task in the open air kitchen in this restaurant with the open view of lush tropical vegetation. Com called maize in Colombia is the traditional staple food of rural peoples, especially in the mountains. I found many of the meals had more starchy foods and less of the lighter vegetables.

This restaurant cooks potatos in huge bats of boiling salted water. This is example of recycling at its best. When I visited Holland on my Fulbright to England I toured the huge green houses that supplied fresh cut flowers to western Europe. It was a real eye-opener to me to visit mammoth green houses in Colombia and learn that many of the. Cololmbia is second only to Holland. Thousands of acres of huge greenhouses are scattered over the savanna near Bogota.

They provide lots of jobs for many less skilled women. Rice is also becoming an important crop in the flat lowlands near rivers for the necessary irrigation. Extreme variations in terrain gives Colombia the most diverse plant and animal populations of any nation on earth. There are swamps, deserts, grasslands, rain forests, and mountain slopes. Eager students learn about their country's great diversity in this open- to - the -outdoor s school building at the Liceo Ingles de Pereira.

The school is a private educational institution founded in by a group of parents interested in a comprehensive educational alternative. This implies an intellectual, ethical, and cultural formation where family participation contributes to a harmonious O ERIC 63 development of the new human being. It is a problem similar to that in the southern states in the U. The brown skin is covered with tiny sharp needles and act much like stinging nettles. The bamboo can grow a foot in a day and here is shown sheding its needle covered brown skin. The bamboo is used for many commercial purposes.

We pause in the hot shade of this thatched roof for a short rest. I carry bottled water with me from my hotel. This bamboo bridge with its thatched roof carries us high above a stream in the Humboldt Botanical Garden at Marsella. Its name honors the prestigious German naturalits and scientist. The Botanical Garden is of great natural beauty and was created by the volunteer labor of the residents of Marsella. There has been an alarming disappearance of many species.

The problem arises because of the tremendous demand from bird fanciers and exotic animal collectors O 64 in the rich nations. If there were no demand there would be no trade. There are guides that will arrange your stay in an Indian village. You must be in good physical condition and willing to live in less than 5-star accommodations. Handicrafts earn pesos for the village artisans.

Sane of the northern areas of the mountains are much drier than the Choco or Amazonia regions. The Caribbean region ranges from the driest desert to the busiest sea port. Barranquilla is the country's main seaport and Colombia's Golden Gate. Situated at the estuary of the Magdalena River, it is noted for its industrial development.

Most the the black population lives in the Caribbean coast area. Cartegena is a historically important city that draws many tourists and reminds me of Honolulu with its tourist hotels lining the beaches. Notice the traditional Spanish style balconies in the background. Here the gardener tends the exotic landscaping. Poverty and health problems still plague the country. It is worsening because the government has been forced to spend large sums of money on intermal defense and security. Shantys of the poor often have no plumbling or garbage service. These are fortunate to have access to electricty and the government is trying very hard to get more dependable electricity to more of the population.

Graves in this area of the coast are all above ground due to the high water table. Human development organizations have also crossed borders. Groups like the United Nations have many sub -organizations that are active in collecting data from member countries and promoting development and activism at the local and regional level. What information is available about it? What are the major sources of information? In what ways does it differ? What are the major causes for the differences, if any? Obviously, this is a big project. Therefore, I plan to submit a preliminary working bibliography for a project that I envision as an ongoing effort.

This will be followed by an annotated bibliography of the sources found to date, both within and outside the country. Although one of my sources includes an essay about the Colombian telenovela as a social phenomenon, I have not yet explored popular culture in depth. This would be a useful area to examine to get some idea of how women are depicted in popular culture. There are a number of reasons for this.

Although the publishing industry has greatly expanded in the last few years, about 40 percent of the total production is governmental; of the rest, a great deal of the product is for foreign markets, which are driven by considerations of marketability. These same considerations also mean that there is not a good distribution system for scholarly works, which are not very profitable and therefore are published in small numbers. Guiomar Duenas, a historian from the University of Texas, says that ironically this is partly due to the fact that Colombia, like Mexico, has a tradition of limited democracy which has not been as repressive as the countries with dictators in their histories.

Also, they have not directly addressed the problem of going after power or making institutional changes that would make their participation easier. Another real handicap has been the lack of money to compete with men in the political sphere. Although Colombian women are considered among the most active politically in Latin America, they are still grossly underrepresented in the seats of power. In the center is the hero Camilo Torres, surrounded by men who are marching with him. Where were the women What does their absence signify?.. In this mural [is] the reallity of Colombian women She adds that none of thel09 Articles of Law of names women specifically.

Official Information Sources Official Colombian government sources, as already noted by Ramirez and Barreto Gama above, often do not collect statistics in such a way that they record data that differentiate between men and women in such things as salaries, unemployment, and displacement by violence- even though such figures would reveal great disparities. This fact is noted even by governmental agencies. Library of Congress area Handbook for Colombia, for example, glosses over many of these differences.

The section on Health only mentions women in the relative life expectancy figures and in areas that are specifically about women, such as maternal mortality. Many of these sources are either foreign or international development organizations. Some of these have very complete statistics but often they are in an international or Latin American context, countries are not treated separately, and the information about Colombia has to be teased out.

Sometimes, information on Colombia is not as complete as information on other countries. Many Quasi-govemmental or non-governmental international organizations- particularly the United Nations and its many subsidiaries such as UNESCO and FAO-- are making a real effort to compile and maintain data bases that will be increasingly useful, as base lines become established.

Where possible, entries are annotated. For online sources, internet and e-mail addresses are given where possible. Originates in Berlin, text is available in English or German, http: States that 53 percent of those displaced are women. Also breaks down how many are displaced from each region, and who is responsible.

Statistics from various sources, such as the Episcopal Conference. Strongly anti-government, as would be expected. Has a good bibliography, http: Mujeres, Etica , Politica y Participacion. Santafe de Bogota, Jan-Jun Although they said that they 71 wanted to get as wide a representation of women and countries as possible, this anthologyhas no Colombian women writers. Estrada Mesa, Angela Maria. Reports available are listed according to topic, and within thattopic, by country. Many articles and reports deal with worldwide or hemisphere wide assessments, but some are specifically on Colombia.

The Women's Movement in Latin America. Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford: Latin; Amer ican Resour ceReview. Vol 1, issue number 2 Winter, was devoted to Latin American women Writers.

An online reference to this journal, which is published at the Resource center of the Americas, Minneapolis, Minnesota, carries summaries of articles and an index of issues. The Internet address is: Bogota, Caracas and Quito: Lopez says that Colombians must construct a new system of values that is not like the traditional partiarchal one. She castigates the Colombian judiciary, which jails only 3 percent of criminals, the church, which is too doctrinaire, confusing its power with Christianity and all of society for its valorization of violence.

Short Fiction by Latin American Women. Information was collected from a variety of sources, including such organizations as UNESCO and governmental agencies in various countries. There were no Colombian agencies cited as sources. A list ofColombian human rights sorganizations, with a description of each, maintained by the International Peace Brigade.

Has a short description of each organization, its address, and any reports on that organization, if available. Republica de Colombia, Depto. Bogota, Aug 30, Has a lot of fairly up to date about the status of women, for example the connection between poverty and female heads of households and the higher unemployment for women nearly double that of men, Report concludes with a series of recommendations, but they are very general, with no specific action proposed.

Author speculates on why the Women's movement, after so many years of organizing and so many people involved, is not more powerful and effective. One reason is that the many organizations cannot act in a unified manner; another is that they have been dealing with day to day issues at the local level and have not addressed systemic change at the national level.

Revista Panaamericana de Salud Public a. This journal, whose text is available online, has little or nothing about women- even in articles and editorials about homicide being the leading cause of death and about themisery caused by violence and the subsequent displacement, there is nothing specifically about women. Ninas y Jovenes en Colombia: Santafe de Bogota, Sept UN Publication Sales E.

New York, April 24, The narrative gives an overview of Latin America, with specific references to various countries. However, the report has many charts that show breakdowns by country. Some statistics are very recent.. Violencia y Literatura en Colombia. Cornell University Press, The book is a collection of essays presented at the fourth annuan Congress of Colombianist Studies in North America.

Las Mujeres en la Historia de Colombia , Bogota: Consejeria Presidencial Para la Politica Social, United Nations— Statistics Division, see their home page: Voices of Colombian Women. Women accounted for only 5 percent of the disappeared, but about 53 percent of the displaced. The rest of the report is a series of interviews with Colombian women. The report really puts faces on the statistics. Confronting Change, Challenging Tradition: Women in Latin American History.

The book is an interdisciplinary look at Latin American women. The Other Face of Machismo" ; others are more current. Some of the essays have bibliographies, and the book has a list of suggested readings and a list of suggested films on women.. It is in its total form at this moment so that it may be adapted to various lectures, that I will be giving to civic clubs, Latin American Civilization classes, and others.

As part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Colombia gained its independence in The period between or War of Independence created a chaos afterward. The government has always been elitist and run by the crioles or descendants from the Spaniards. These "criollas" did not see independence as a chance to build a new civilization, but wanted to emulate European civilization, using it as the North Star of models. They created nothing indigenous. Their ideas were the liberal democratic ideals of Europe in the 's. These original two parties have dominated Colombia's history and represent the confrontation of the role of church and state, centralism vs.

The Liberals favored the federal system with a small role for the state, free trade, and no role for the Church. The Conservatives favored free trade with a degree of protection, Christian morality, and a larger state role with the church important. This thought has faded, however, and the prevailing attitude represents not a huge contrast from the U. This system does not represent a real democracy, however, although there are elections. One or the other of the parties has been hegemonic, not because of elections but because of the forceful exclusion of the other.

From to , the Liberals or federalists dominated, whereas from the Conservatives O ERIC 77 2 or centralists dominated.

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Their hegemony was insured through force and not through free elections, as conditions to guarantee free elections did not exist. Colombia has had 15 constitutions after its wars with no agreement as to what the real model should be. Its confrontations have been bloody, causing instability. There still is no consensus as to what political system is best, resulting in the underlying reasons for the violence. Forceful exclusion has caused cycles of violence followed by periods of accommodation, emanating from a sense of agreement among the elites as to the ideal and fear of the masses l They have always constituted a threat from below causing 9 national civil wars during the 19th century.

The Constitution of liberated the slaves, but the century began with a civil war. During the '30's the Conservatives were in power, and in the Liberals lost in a split election in which the Conservatives came back. The Communist Party is legal and participates in elections. An exclusion from power generated the dynamic of violence in in which , were killed and two million displaced. There were underlying conflicts on a regional and ethnic level concerning the land issue not exclusively political in nature.

These two political parties are not disciplined and lack 78 3 centralized ideas. They consist of a collection of regional bosses "gasuonales , "? These parties constitute a sub-culture of the country. One is born a member of one or the other, the working class being captured by the Conservatives. The violence threatened the elites who called in the military, but there has been only one military dictator this century , different from the history of military coups prevalent in other Latin American countries.

The elites cooperate with the military governments which creates not a real dictatorship. Rojas, the military dictator called in in , decided to become independent of the political parties based on his accord with the people and the armed forces. Although the elites could not agree on a policy, they decided it was time for him to go as he wanted a Populist government to include the people but controlled by the military.

The elites called in the military to defeat the military which provided a transition back to a civilian government. From the elites provided the political and military command. A change occurred as the political command and guerrillas were inspired by the civilian elites who granted authority to those fighting. The Communist guerrillas resorted to their own armies to confront the regime. The Liberal guerrillas radicalized and separated from the party. Their interest was land. Guytan brought the "bogatazo" wherein a Liberal attempted a project on the support of the working class.

He was assassinated in , having enjoyed a large popular following. A charismatic speaker, 79 4 his project threatened the status quo, and his assassination created a spontaneous "bogatazo, the end for the masses to enjoy the fruits of the Populist movement. This marked the beginning of the real confrontation as the Populists were able to compete with the Communists for the masses. President Alfonso Lopez in the 30 's tried to adopt social measures for the lower classes, but was blocked by the elites.

The revolutionary challenge has come from the left, from the Communists, but this in an effort to exclude the previously included. In the traditional elites returned to the civilian government. In the National Front, the two parties agreed to share the power from to when they rotated the Presidency between the Liberals and the Conservatives with limitations on popular elections only, not on the Army. The elected posts were shared equally in the Congress even though the Liberals held the majority.

This re-established some political order? This responded to the need to put an end to the violence, but depolarized the traditional parties and diluted their differences. Colombians no longer felt any allegiance to any party? The traditional parties were not able to capture the emerging social forces, and these could compete with them. As the country industrialized, foreign and local scholars say this was the reason for the emergence of guerrilla forces.

Due to the Cuban revolution and the exclusive character of the elections, youth saw the Cuban revolution as an ideal. This simplistic, focused theory Che Guevara saw no need for a long and protracted conflict. Small groups of revolutionaries lit the fire on the prairies. They armed peasants, but these had to stop their confrontations. The elites could not allow areas held by peasants to exist and bombed them. The guerrillas were mobile now, however, numbering 10, closely allied to the Communist Party.

Marxist and Christian thought prevailed as the Church debated its role. The Church traditionally allied with the elites, but now Catholic priests such as Camilo Torres led them. Manuel Perez is their current leader. It now stands for Esperanza, Paz, Libertad, and is still active. Marxist in the 's, new groups within it criticize the old guerrillas as unable to mobilize mass-based movements. The M19 organized 19th of April, Rojas, its leader ran and thought he was the winner of the presidential election, but the Conservatives took over.

Radio transmissions were suspended and the next morning it was announced that the Conservatives had won. The ANAPO or left wing party with Rojas as its leader resorted to armed struggle since they could not win through the elections. They were not Marxists but Populists, preached that it was not necessary to be Marxist, and started a new project to rescue elements in agreement with the nationalist ideas.

They identified with the poor, but preached that it was not necessary to be Marxist. These supported the armed left, not the legal but the armed left which exerted a great influence. The ' 80's brought a new conflictive element and new actants, the drug dealers, who had been major marijuana exporters after this was banned in Mexico.

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Pablo Escobar rose from a small thief as he created channels for exporting this product. He used financial institutions on the international level to launder his money, creating a new violent actor who confronted the state and the left. The M19 finances themselves through kidnapping. They kidnaped the sister of a drug baron which brought a huge reaction on the part of the drug lords who formed groups to combat guerrillas. They created death squads, death to kidnappers. As right wing 82 7 actors, the barons became the new capitalists. Politicians connected with them for cooperation.

The economic and political class saw a threat to capitalist interests, plus international forces forced the government to confront the lords. This brought strange temporary alliances, the guerrillas in cooperation with the lords to confront the state, and guerilla alliances with the state to confront the lords. These confrontations were weakening the political institutions, but Escobar was dismantled and his military apparatus also which was undermining "democratic" institutions.

The M19 was hard hit by the state although it was a political project that fit many Colombians. Before, they thought defeat of the guerrillas was the answer, but in the strategy changed. In no Colombian guerrillas were in political parties, and this has determined their- following since. Cease fires have been arranged to accommodate the voices of the guerrillas. This entity is still exclusionary. They cannot deal with their differences. The ELN recruited , members, a significant number, targeted the Patriotic Union, and said no to legal alternatives.

The case of the Patriotic Union was taken to international tribunals. In the government was still talking to the guerrillas. The government has realized the need for a new Constitution to O ERIC 83 8 reflect the new realities, and in wrote a new liberal one full of guarantees and recognition of ethnic diversity where before had seen suppression of ethnic differences.

Racism is a real phenomenon embedded in the culture. The Spanish and their descendants did a good job of eradicating the Indians. The majority is mixed, resulting after independence from the "encounter" of two cultures. As it was really extermination, it was rather a "clash" of two cultures, and in the name of the new culture, the society has tried to suppress both extremes. To be Colombian is to identify with the mixture. The struggle is not isolated, but specific. The Constitution rescues regional differences, religious diversity, and is decentralized.

Principles have to be developed for the new, non-Catholic Christians. This created optimism, but two main guerrilla groups refused to participate, FARC and ELN, who are not in political channels but who are very strong. The army almost destroyed ELN, but they now number 3, FARC numbers 10, armed men who receive their arms from the international black market and Central America. Why do they grow so fast? In the guerrillas had 40 fronts, and in they have 90 fronts. In they were present in towns, 1, in population. In they are present in ERIC 84 9 municipalities.

There are no armed struggles in Bogota. They are more rife in Bucaramanga, a medium-sized city.