The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts (Cabi Publishing)

Shelf life of fresh fruit can be sheath, petiole and blade tissue. In Brazil, the slightly larger-diameter In Brazil, with somewhat different internal market demands, hearts are more easily evaluated by height than diameter these production parameters vary a little, with slightly longer Clement and Bovi, , and this has become standard time frames given that plants must grow for another few months practice for both the processed and the fresh markets.

Two non-commercial better returns to the processing operations.

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Clement leaf sheaths, surrounding the heart-of-palm, are normally left to protect it from rapid moisture loss and mechanical damage Literature cited and further reading during transport. Ideally the heart-of-palm should be Adin, A. Theoretical and Applied Genetics , — The Codex is designed to population decline. Economic Botany 53, — Acta Amazonica 30, — This new market is still only a extensive research and development did not promote use of peach niche, but appears to have great promise. Agroforestry Systems 61, — Conservation Biology 9, — Rather, the breeding effort aims at Ferreira, E.

This strategy is perfect Borchsenius, F. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden Uses and nutritional composition Bactris gasipaes Kunth. Institute of Plant Genetics No nutritional information is available on these species. They are eaten fresh or juiced to make a refreshing Cultivares de pejibaye para palmito.

Botanical tropical forests throughout the Americas. Several of these form large National Academy of Sciences NAS Underexploited Tropical complexes that may ultimately be split up into distinct species. Plants with Promising Economic Value. Leaves are most frequently Prance, G. Bailey, pinnate but can be simple, and the canopy holds between four and the papaya, Carica papaya L. Peabody Museum of Archeology and in different planes, but some species have regularly arranged Ethnology, Paper No. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pinnae.

The leaf sheath of most species extends above the Massachusetts, pp.

Spineless species are the Rodrigues, D. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51, — The rachillae are slender, and separate male and female Rojas-Vargas, S. Revista de Biologia Tropical 47, — The one-seeded fruit vary Yuyama, L. They are generally smooth. Horticultura Brasileira 17, 91— The mesocarp can Yuyama, L. The seed is covered by a bony S. America and throughout tropical South America. They have little tolerance of frost and prosper with Bactris spp.

It is likely that fruit of species other than those listed can be consumed. Bactris species other than B. Bailey, Costa Rica , coyolito and Venezuela globose, 1. Some authors feel that only a single species, B. Coryphoideae, all dioecious costapalmate fan palms. Principes 15, aethiopicum is very similar in all respects to B. Princeton University Press, Princeton, Fig. There may be 25—40 fresh leaves.

The leaves are New Jersey, pp. The palms Urpi, J. Revista Biologia Tropiale 30, — They contain two or three large seeds. Its sap is an important grows from the Persian Gulf to the Cambodian—Vietnamese source of sugar and the fruit and seeds have been consumed border and is commonly cultivated in India, South-east Asia, by people for centuries. An average crop of B. Small fruit are pickled in vinegar. Immature seeds are often sold in Indian markets.

The kernels of such young seeds are obtained by roasting the seeds and then breaking them open. The half- grown, soft-shelled seeds are sliced longitudinally to form loops, or rings and these, as well as the whole kernels, are canned in clear, mildly sweetened water, and exported. Tender fruit that fall prematurely are fed to cattle. It is also extracted to prepare a product called punatoo in Ceylon. It is eaten alone or with the starch from the palmyra seedlings.

The fresh pulp is reportedly rich in vitamins A and C. The fruit contains, per g, 43 calories, Borassus flabellifer palm with permission from Sitijati been described in the genus Borassus, it is likely than ony three Sastrapradja from Palem Indonesia, Lembaga Biologi Nasional, Brahea Malaysia, tropical Africa and occasionally in other warm Morton, J.

Its area of of Borassus palms Arecaceae. Economic Botany 42, — Though well adapted to dry, tropical Brahea dulcis palma de sombrero climates, the palmyra grows better with regular irrigation, but will not tolerate waterlogged soils. Fruit mature in July and August. Related species with edible fruit include Brahea armata S. The Yuman Indians grind when young, becoming rounded or more or less oval, the seeds of this palm into a meal, and also eat the fruit fresh 12—15 cm wide, and capped at the base with overlapping and use the juice for drinks.

Guadalupe palm, Brahea edulis, sepals. The outer covering is smooth, thin, leathery and native to Guadalupe Island off the coast of Baja California, brown, turning nearly black after harvest. Inside is a juicy also has edible fruit and it is said to taste similar to dates. Within the mature seed is a solid white kernel Henderson et al. Also Brahea aculeata from western endosperm which resembles coconut meat but is much Mexico is said to have edible fruit. When the fruit is very young, this kernel is hollow, soft as jelly and translucent like ice, and is accompanied by a Uses and nutritional composition watery liquid, sweetish and potable.

Brahea dulcis is not produced commercially. The fruit are eaten locally.

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The fruit are picked when ripe and can be eaten Horticulture fresh or made into preserves. The cotyledonary Botany petiole may bury itself as much as 0. Seeds begin to germinate in 2—6 weeks. They are growing, and do not even show any aerial stem elongation for found in dry woodland to semi-desert. Flowering may begin at tribe Corypheae of the subfamily Coryphoideae. Some 12—15 years of age, and will continue for about 50 years.

Bailey, Brahea calcarea Liebm. The stems often lean. The canopy the palms Duke, The one-seeded fruit are ovoid, 1—1. Meerow long and brown or green. Economic Botany 41, grows poorly in humid, subtropical or tropical climates, but — The Brazil , growing on sandy soils from southern Brazil into seed stores well at room temperature for at least a year. It is northern Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay at low elevation.

It rather slow growing. Princeton University Press, Princeton, unless the bony endocarp surrounding the seed s is cracked. Arecaceae , is a modest-sized Palms of the Americas. Princeton University Press, Princeton, single-stemmed palm widely grown as an ornamental in warm New Jersey, pp. Related species with edible fruit include Butia eriospatha Calamus rotang rattan Mart. Rattan, Calamus rotang L. The fruit of this species are soaked in alcohol to make Asia, Australasia and tropical Africa.

The genus is the largest a beverage. The most important economic use of B. The seeds of many species are Uses and nutritional composition surrounded by a sweet, pulpy aril that is locally consumed. Calamus rotang is the type species for the genus and is used This palm is not produced commercially and the fruit of herein as representative. No information on their nutritional value is available.

World production and yield Botany The collection of fruit for consumption can only be considered an incidental use for rattan vines. Most of the species are species. In the Philippines, the industry provides jobs for endemic to Brazil. The trunk can reach about 0. The canopy consists of 18—32 arching leaves that vary from Uses and nutritional composition yellowish green to greyish green. Each leaf is 2. The subacid pulp surrounding the seed is same rachillae. The ovoid fruit are 1. The fruit are sometimes pickled in brine as 1.

These uses are minor ones to three seeds surrounded by a bony endocarp with three by comparison to the great economic importance of the long pores near the middle. Cocos Botany the shade, treated with fungicide, then planted directly or stored in moist sawdust for several days. Two collecting specimens of the spiny stems, but at least seedlings are planted in each hole, each hole spaced 2 m on species are estimated to be in the genus Calamus.

The leaf sheaths and petioles are armed with straight or recurved spines. K is recommended shortly after planting, and 1. Various canopy of forest trees over m tall. The fruit are 1. Meerow overlapping scales in vertical rows. PhD than secondary forest. They are exclusively tropical plants and thesis, Universiti Putra, Malaysia.

Alloysius observed no clear relationship between Florida, pp. Alloysius reported that C. Anthesis occurs at night, suggesting nocturnal insects moths might be pollinators, with bees the main The coconut Cocos nucifera L. Bogh studied phenology and recognized and obviously different from any other fruit or nut. He also determined that diversity for this important crop species is in the islands of Trigona bees were the most important pollinators. The oil is used for making candles, soap and high months for Calamus scipionum and Calamus ornatus in explosives.

Strictly speaking the coconut is not an achene but a drupe like a plum. It is these two characters, rather than the oil vegetative propagation by division of clumps or by suckers is content of the kernel, that account for the original natural possible. This led to human dissemination inland, upland and by boat to ability enabled its earliest, pre-human, dispersal. The reverse is the case. It had a wide natural than a century from the mids to the late s for high dissemination before Polynesians, and then Europeans, took it lauric acid content. Coconut palms grown by these the mercantile activities of sailing ships and then oil, from farmers are already less productive than African oil palm.

The future of the in agriculturally unsuitable places in the tropics. Coconut fruit is used fresh at both the Portuguese ; coco, cocotero Spanish ; cocotier French ; immature and the mature stage. It now has making this region the centre of diversity. This region is widespread uses in horticulture as a replacement for peat moss.

The coconut cultivars on the water is an important adjunct in media for tissue culture. The dehusked fruit is about 10 cm in true centre of origin for Cocos was at the conjunction of South diameter weighing about g, having g endosperm, America and southern Africa when those two continents were g shell and g liquid endosperm water. The liquid part of the Gondwana super-continent. The water is synchronously with the movement of the Indian sub- marketed in sterilized long-life packs in South-east Asia and continental tectonic plate from Gondwana across the Brazil. Mechanical damage will cause the white coir to turn primordial Tethys Sea.

Geologically, this is supported by brown and can cause nut cracking. The nuts are held in a cool place until processed or sold on the Indian subcontinent. Further prehistoric spread into at market. Such natural dispersal of ancestral Alternatively, all the husk is removed before dipping in the coconut palm can account for the predominance of coconut sulphite solution. Waxing of the coconut oil are becoming better known Fife, More recently the residual coir dust cocopeat is Mature nuts for copra, coir or desiccated coconut are left on replacing peat moss for environmentally sustainable, the palm until 11 months or more from pollination when the horticultural seed-sowing and potting mixtures.

Freshly gathered toddy has about 8. Monkeys can also be solids, pH 3. The processing of copra and the use of the Botany husks has been extensively reviewed cf. Woodroff, ; Ohler, Previously, the genus contained over 30 developed in the s. However, the use of glycerin, a by- other species that occurred in Central and South America; product of soap manufacture, to make nitroglycerine expanded these are now assigned to several other genera.

Proximate fruit composition of coconut Source: The stem has only one terminal growing point, Fat Loss of the terminal Fibre 0. Branching of the Ash 0. During the initial years of Minerals mg Calcium 11 13 24 Trace growth the stem gradually increases in thickness and then this Phosphorus 42 83 18 — diameter is maintained until about 10 m when there is a Iron 1.

Poor nutrition can also reduce Sodium 51 16 5 34 stem diameter. Early rapid stem growth occurs until fruiting, Potassium then the rate of stem growth declines. The absence of a lateral Vitamins mg cambium layer means that there is no secondary thickening Ascorbic acid 7 5 3 29 and no capacity to repair injury. Each leaf has — adventitious root system. These roots are produced from wide at the apex.

This light interception makes coconut same thickness and short-lived rootlets. The older part of the suitable for mixed cropping. The functional leaf area in a main roots and branches becomes sclerotic. Damage to the horizontally and can reach 20 m from the palm and about 2 m leaves by insects, storms or leaf pruning or clipping can lead to below the surface. The reduction in nut yield is due to nut shedding 0. The initial roots of the germinating and premature nut fall Bailey et al. The branching and continued growth.

The spadix when mature and after emergence from are fully opened. After about 30 years, there is a gradual the bract is 1. There is a short style with three stigmas, three ovules are produced though normally only one is fertile. There is also little change in the canopy spread with age and the limited root spread makes this an ideal crop for intercropping. Numerous crops are grown under coconut: Inter- cropping increases the income of small growers. Cash crops are used among young coconut planting, and more long-term crops such as bananas can be planted in alternate rows Ohler, Though the palm is grown on a wide range of soil types, it Fig.

Leaf, flower and fruit of Coco nucifera Source: Vozzo, yields best on rich river alluvial deposits with good drainage. The number of spadices produced towards the beaches. Soil pH of acid clays aborted. Irrigation is needed in spadix during the morning, falling in the afternoon and the a new planting until the root system reaches the dry season whole process continues for upwards of a month on the same water table. In the absence of a water table, trickle irrigation is spadix. There is a sweet scent at anthesis and nectar recommended. Large plantations are not normally irrigated, production from the pistillodes in the base of the staminate though nut and copra yield are reduced by drought.

The are receptive on the same spadix forcing cross-pollination in mean transpiration rate of mature coconut palm is about 7. Lower application rates mean that the the palms Patel, Some dwarf cultivars have male and palm is still drawing some water from the soil. The presence of nectar and sweet scent to fruit maturity, including the 12 months from anthesis to leads to considerable bee activity on both male and female fruit maturity.

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This shedding can crop size 12 months later. There is a further shedding of more at the damage site. Malaysia and Sri Lanka both report mature nuts just before they are full grown and before the lightning as a major contributing factor to disease. These are found on tropical sea drought. Mature coconut palms have survived frost and snow sometimes observed after tapping for toddy. Temperature is the deciding variable in altitude of come into production. At the equator, the limit for commercial production shed and immature nut fall Foale, High sprays particularly 2—4D and coconut water can double button maximum temperatures can also decrease yield.

Nut yield has been correlated palm growth. The mature fruit is either reduction. Strong winds from hurricanes or cyclones can lead ovoid and angular or spherical, depending on cultivar, to palm death by the crown being broken off, but palms that 20—30 cm long, weighing from 1—2 kg. It has a thin epidermis, are blown over may survive and root along the stem. Inside the endocarp, at maturity, the white soon after the leaf. The a large central cavity.

The embryo weighs c. Occasionally, there will be two or three viable germination. The shoot appears after several weeks. There is a embryos, one under each generative pore. The shell is already When coconuts are processed to copra many may have started differentiated before fertilization and further development to germinate and, in Sri Lanka and elsewhere, the spongy occurs after the mesocarp has differentiated, about 4 months haustorium is eaten as a vegetable delicacy.

The endosperm is after fertilization. These the solid endosperm still present after 9—18 months Menon cells begin to coalesce towards the periphery of the embryo sac and Pandalai, Coconut seedlings may therefore have on the endocarp about 7 months after fertilization. Additional adequate amount of stored nutrients in the nut till cells are formed and adhere to the endocarp, resulting in the transplanting but fertilizer application can stimulate growth.

Oil content sprouted 4—6 months , sometimes up to 9 months. This in the endosperm parallels its development. Coconut water should be scheduled so that germination occurs in time to begins to form about 3 months after fertilization and reaches a transplant at the start of the wet season.

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The cleared land is maximum at 8 months after fertilization then declines. The planted commonly on a triangular pattern, rows running coconut water is of cytoplasmic origin but in mature coconut north—south, with 6—10 m between plants to obtain optimum there are no free cells. A spacing becoming reddish brown. Organic manure is frequently of the amount of liquid endosperm reduces the nut mass from added to the planting hole that is big enough to accept the 3—4 kg at 9 months to 1.

If irrigation is when the endosperm has begun to form and is jelly-like available, the seedling should be watered as soon as possible to Tongdee, before it gradually thickens and hardens. The stimulate root development. Immature all parts of the palm can be used, leaf trimming is sometimes fruit full of water and very heavy or over-mature fruit with practised.

Trimming can reduce yield. The selected seed nuts can withstand normal harvesting but careful handling may avoid damage and consequential loss of viability. Speed of germination is a taxonomic characteristic magnesium sulphate on two occasions Fremond et al. The amount of minerals exported in the nuts need to be watered daily to assure uniform germination harvested product is greatest in the husk: For halodes can cause losses Nambiar and Rawther, Nut water analysis is useful for K but not other as can the virus causing foliar decay disease in Vanuatu nutrients.

The disease is caused by a phytoplasma spread by characteristics. Coconut milk is obtained by removing and a plant hopper Jones et al. Young coconuts are harvested 6—9 months after species. In immature nuts, http: When the area Over species of insects have been recorded to associate surrounding the cap is green the coconut is regarded as with coconut, of which are peculiar to coconut. Only a few mature and is 10—12 months old.

At maturity the skin begins are serious pests Fremond et al. Mature US dehusked bacterial or fungal infection. The palm weevil Rhynchophorus coconuts are sold in 34—36 kg woven plastic or burlap sacks palmarum is the vector for the red ring disease nematode containing 40—50 coconuts, plastic mesh bags of 12 coconuts Table A. After laying eggs in the petiole and foliage. Total loss sodium bisulphite before packing. Bisulphite is not approved of fruit production in otherwise healthy palms can be caused in the USA for this purpose.

The coconut though the nuts can be forced-air or hydro-cooled. Mature coconuts with husk can be kept at ambient subsequently been reported elsewhere in Latin America, all conditions for 3—5 months before the coconut water has over the Caribbean and West Africa and is currently active in evaporated, the shell has cracked because of desiccation or India and Sri Lanka. Monkeys, squirrels and rats cause sprouting has occurred. Low humidity and high temperature are to be avoided. The real relationship between this land-living crab weeks.

Shaped young coconuts not treated with bisulphite and the coconut is to enable its short-lived aquatic larval stage brown in 12 h, but when treated with 0. Some important diseases and nematodes of coconut Source: Nambiar and Rawther, ; Ploetz, Heart leaves chlorotic, wilted and easily removed All coconut growing areas extending to stem apex.

Affected nuts shed Basal stem rot Ganoderma spp. Related viroid found outside the Philippines but cadang-cadang only recognized in the Philippines Foliar decay Virus single-stranded; circular DNA Progressive yellowing, necrosis and death. Vanuatu Transmitted by plant hopper to imported varieties; local varieties are resistant Lethal yellowing Phytoplasma previously mycoplasma-like First reported from Cuba and Jamaica in s. Yellowing of foliage Florida, Texas, Mexico, Belize, from the oldest leaves on very susceptible tall Guatemala, Honduras. West types, brown in more resistant tall and dwarf Africa: Bud death, no control, resistant varieties Nigeria, Togo.

The vector is a weevil palm resulting in leaf yellowing and internal red ring symptom about 70 cm around the inoculation point of the stem. Sanitation reduces vector population Table A. Major insect pests of coconut. Vector of lethal yellowing, blast and foliar America leaf yellowing , West Africa blast decay and Vanuatu foliar decay Ganoderma spp. The terms variety, dwarf cultivars are generally but not always self-pollinated cultivar, ecotype, population are often used interchangeably Table A. Although they are never as high or as naming types according to their origin and habit e.

The characteristics of tall and dwarf types of coconut and example of populations. However, colours help to identify off- selection for the fresh market criteria take precedence types when hybrids are produced between yellow dwarf seed Harries, b. Yield increase can be achieved by increasing parents and tall pollen parents. Commercially, dwarf cultivars the number of nuts per palm, rather than the amount of copra are considered to be less productive, more sensitive to poor per nut, earliness of bearing possibly linked to the annual rate conditions and have lower quality copra.

Some dwarf cultivars of leaf production , palm vigour and disease resistance. Morphological markers, disease, isozyme evaluation, selection and progeny testing, crossing and and molecular markers are becoming available Ashburner, evaluation in different growing regions for adaptability. The b; Ashburner et al.

Harries and Robert E. Dwarf types have been selected from this normally tall type. However, the nuts do not sprout, Abeywardena, V. Ceylon Coconut free of endosperm, can be grown aseptically in vitro. Another Planters Review 6, 97— In Sri Lanka, a Anon. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pests. Philippine Journal of Coconut Studies 10, 21— Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp.

Investigations on the shedding of buttons in the coconut Cocos Oropeza, C. Role of synthetic hormones as related to shedding Yellowing: Research and Practical Aspects. Kluwer Academic of button. Indian Coconut Journal 9, — Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp. Kluwer Academic tropical monocotyledons.

Australian Centre for Ashburner, G. Turrialba 27, Oleagineux 47, — Papua New of Cocos nucifera. Botanical Review 44, — Guinea Agriculture Journal 28, 39— Journal of Food Science 41, Harries, H. April Fool or a curious case of instinct? Principes 27, Bourdeix, R. A rundown of Harries, H. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

Journal of the American Society of grammes. Evaluation of root system distribution in tall coconut cultivars. Longman, London, Oleagineux 48, — Coconut Time Line Web Data base. Elsevier, the Netherlands, Cooke, F. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly 5, pp. Palms 46 2 , 97— Experimental Agriculture 19, — World Crops 26, beds, Mangonui, North Auckland. Transactions of the Royal — Society of New Zealand 79, — Botanica Neerlandica 19, — Piccadilly Books, boating and introgression: International Potash Institute, Berne, Switzerland.

Desert Cocos sahnii Sp. Current Science India 20 5 , Cocos Kiple, K. Superintendent — Government Press, Madras, India. Proceedings of the 11th International of Tropical Fruit Diseases. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Randles, J. Pliocene of Queensland, Australia. Birbal Sahni Centenary Leung, W. United Nations Food Gautier, P. Self- Philippine Journal of Coconut Studies 3, 51— Philippine Journal of Sahni, B. Journal of Indian Magat, S. Philippine Journal of irrigation scheduling for adult coconut. Indian Coconut Journal 21 Coconut Studies 13 2 , 6— Phillippine Journal of Coconut Studies 11, 44— Philippines Journal of Coconut Menon, K.

Philippines Journal of Coconut Studies 12, T. Academic Press, New 14— Journal of Plantation Crops 19, — Tropiculture Agriculture 44, — Coconut Research and Development. Ltd, New Delhi, India, pp. Journal of Plantation Crops 18, 66— Advances Economic Ooi, L. Agriculture Handbook marine clay soils in Pensinsular Malaysia.

Parkes quoted in Kirch, P. Journal of Biogeography Contact. Universtiy of California Press, Berkeley, California. As the oil palm is a very productive 3—5 Yaacob, O. Oxford University, Kuala increase further, particularly in Indonesia and Colombia. Uses and nutritional composition The palm fruit produces palm oil from the mesocarp and Elaeis guineensis oil palm kernel oil from the nut. The oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. It is the leading export oil margarines and spreads. Oil palm cultivation has most of the elements of an commodities traded and used in food and oleochemical e.

Stearic acid is a cocoa butter substitute. Palm oil or in degraded forests; use of a leguminous cover crop in the as methyl ester palm diesel can be used as biofuel. Carotene in crude palm oil has been processed into a vitamim A supplement and a food dye. Tocols extracted Historical origins from palm oil have been encapsulated and marketed as palm The African oil palm, E. Sterols, squalene, co-enzyme Q and phospholipids, is indigenous to tropical Africa, concentrated in the rainforest components of palm oil, have applications in pharmaceutical, areas of the West and Central African countries of Angola, nutraceutical, food and cosmetic industries.

Surplus power can be fruit is the primary internationally traded commodity. Oil palm supplied to the national grid. They nutritionists and traders have equated it with coconut oil as started with seedlings that originated from the four thick- saturated oils from tropical palms. Consumption of high shelled dura palms in Bogor Botanic Gardens, Java. The four amounts of such oils would predispose the individual to heart palms presumably originated from the same fruit bunch in disease.

Proponents of palm oil counter-argue that the Africa and came to Indonesia via Amsterdam and Mauritius. Palm oil also contains have expanded tremendously since and continue to do so. It does not require hydrogenation in the World production and yield production of margarines. This will soon change.

Palm oil, with It is 70 c. PKO Ice cream Fractionation etc. Uses of palm oil Source: Variability of fatty acid composition in oil palm populations Source: Arasu ; Rajanaidu, ; Rajanaidu et al. Genetic one plane and different fruit traits, was known earlier as Elaeis variability for unsaturated fatty acid and other oil quality traits melanococca and Corozo oleifera. The third species, Elaeis madagascariensis, is thought to be a variant of E.

Botany There are also named vegetative and fruit variant forms of E. They emit a characteristic aniseed smell. It contains a The oil palm has only one terminal bud. It and a coloured exocarp. The apical bud or meristem extent by Thrips hawaiiensis. The petiole is 1. Good nutrition, high light intensity or low the middle being the longest at 1. Secondary is fertilized to form a seed within the fruit. The mesocarp develops simultaneously and length accordingly. The primary roots synthesis in the kernel and the mesocarp.

The latter process presumably have palm anchorage and conduit functions while commences at 70 days from pollination, increases the others are for water and nutrient absorption. Total root exponentially from days and reaches the peak at — length may exceed 60 km. In the less common spikelets, each 10—30 cm long.

Fruit viability lasting 3—8 days. It cannot outward to receive the pollen. The stigmatic lobes are creamy thrive in primaeval forests and does not regenerate in tall white with sticky glandular central tissue. They turn pink after secondary forests. Both male and grown on lowlands.

Descendents of the rivers. However, the oil palm can smaller bunch and fruit and smaller stature. The suitable temperature for oil palm is a mean Palm Cam. The oil palm being a C3 plant requires full sunlight objective of genetic improvement. Improvement in oil content for maximum photosynthesis. Ease of harvesting is sunshine hours are not accompanied by drought, high water important in labour scarce countries such as Malaysia. Improvement in oil quality, particularly unsaturation, has received much attention in Asian Horticulture programmes.

High carotene oil palms are also being sought. Typically, advanced Guineensis materials by backcross breeding or by tenera hybrids thin shell, thick-mesocarp fruited palms are genetic engineering because of hydrid sterility and the poor obtained by controlled pollination of the thick-shell fruited agronomic traits from the donor species. Commercial seeds are hybrids and clones, breeding for adaptability and tolerance to mixtures of hybrids derived from parents which are non-true abiotic e. Consequently, considerable genetic variability exists wilt resistance and drought tolerance are important objectives among commercial palms.

Here is a brief description of the major parental populations. Breeding The shell trait exhibits monogenic inheritance. Subsequent distribution and pisifera is homozygous recessive and the thin-shelled tenera is selections in other countries led to the development of sub- the heterozygote exhibiting incomplete dominance. The former cross commercial hybrid seed-production programmes.

Indonesia to give rise to the well-known progenitor, SP Oil palm hybrid seeds are obtained from recurrent selection Descendants of this palm have been widely distributed to progammes. Selfs of the dura and tenera parents are planted at planting at the onset of the rainy season. Further breeding for oil palm cultivation. The environmentally friendly zero- involves the progeny tested dura and tenera parents.

This burn technique is now widely adopted in both new clearing scheme produces more genetically uniform hybrids. The existing vegetation is usually mechanically cleared and stacked in windrows parallel to the In vitro propagation Commercial mixed hybrids exhibit planting rows. Nevertheless, it stimulated the successful accelerate decomposition.

To control the Oryctes considered a recalcitrant species for in vitro propagation. In rhinoceros beetle, the standing palm or chipped palm residues vitro propagation of oil palm is achieved via somatic are increasingly being mechanically pulverized to destroy embryogenesis from callus cultures using young leaf explants potential beetle breeding sites.

The production of polyhydroxy butyrate PHB by component of land preparation. There is a host of other possibilities. Road density used as breeding parents for hybrid seed production. Commercial Molecular markers linked to quantitative trait loci of desirable plantings of clones are constrained by the high cost and traits e.

Therefore management and use of space and water. A round of culling is the best possible care and growing conditions are given to these done before transplanting into the main nursery. Shade is not palms. Shade is reduced progressively and palms. Small farmers may plant a cash crop e.

The economic lifespan of an oil palm planting the best uniformly grown seedlings are transplanted into the ranges from 20 to 30 years depending on growing conditions. Social and other economic considera- tions also affect replanting decisions. The growth and production. The preferred method of weed management conditions and genotype. On smother the weeds in the inter-rows.

Common weeds in more marginal conditions e. Imperata cylindrica lallang grass , smaller and inter-palm competition is reduced, higher density Mikania sp. From planting, a clean-weeded palm circle of per hectare. Planting holes are usually dug herbicides, at the risk of contaminating the young palm, is now with a tractor-mounted auger and 0. Young palms are rock is applied into the hole before the seedling is planted sensitive to systemic and hormonal herbicides e. The Establishment of leguminous cover crop Due to the long period recent innovative use of a perforated 2.

This improves soil aeration, rooting the plastic mulch is laid down thus saving labour costs for up and water conservation. A mixture of Pureria phaseoloides, to eight fertilizer applications otherwise needed. A small starter dose of compound fertilizer is collection. Mucuna cochinchinesis is gaining to maintain a non-competitive ground cover for soil, moisture popularity due to its fast-growing habit enabling rapid ground and nutrient conservation. Axonopus compressus and ferns e.

Biological control of weeds on a research considerations. This is a crucial period in that large, fast-growing scale has been attempted, for example the use of the leaf-eating and vigorous palms are not only more precocious but are also caterpillar Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata against Chromolaena in higher yielding. The palms are also most susceptible to weed Indonesia and Malaysia. Routine pest management is thus needed leaves while the latter attacks the roots.

Integrated pest management is Most reported diseases of oil palms are caused by fungi, generally advocated. Bursaphelenchus cocophilus in red ring disease in South Insect pests commonly reported to cause economic damage America. In most cases, management of these diseases is in Malaysia and Indonesia are the leaf-eating caterpillars, for through cultural control by excluding the disease organisms example bagworms, Metisa plana, Pteroma pendula and from areas where it is not known to occur, destroying diseased Mahasena corbetti; and nettle caterpillars, Setora nitens, Darna palms and control of the associated vectors of these diseases.

The planting of nectar- conditions and balanced nutrition would maximize vigour and producing plants such as Cassia cobanensis and Euphorbia minimize infection incidences. In young palms, the attempted in Malaysia. The potential of mass production of external symptoms normally comprise one-sided yellowing or microbial pathogens of these leaf-eating caterpillars for mottling of lower leaves followed by necrosis and retarded commercial applications is also being explored. In mature palms, common symptoms are the presence method of control used in outbreaks is trunk injection of of multiple unopened leaf spears and pale canopy.

Tissues of systemic insecticides e. Basidiomata may be produced on effects e. In recent years, rhinoceros beetles the dead palm tissues. Fortnightly spraying with years to die. Cultural measures to exclude and destroy the cypermethrin is the current control method. The beetles inoculum of the disease is the current method of control.

The of suitable breeding sites. Screening for disease-tolerant genotypes is released, and augmentative release of the pathogenic fungus also being pursued.

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Ganoderma disease of palms is the subject Metarhizium sp. Coptotermes curvignathus termites cause severe losses of Vascular wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum elaedis is a young palms planted on peat in Malaysia and Indonesia. They serious disease of oil palm in West Africa and has been bore into the meristem tissue in the crown to feed, causing introduced into South America. It is a soil-borne disease death within 6—12 months after infestation. A current attacking young and older palms. In infected older palms the common control measure is to drench the crown and soil older leaves desiccate and the rachis break at some distance around the base of the infested palms with the insecticide from the base, the disease moves up the spiral leaving Fipronil.

The use of baits containing sublethal doses of reduced-sized chlorotic green leaves at the crown and the insecticides that could be carried to the nests by the workers to palm may remain in this state for a while before collapsing. In destroy the reproductive queens has been reported. In young palms, rats feed on the frond palm. The common method for control is the use Lethal bud rot hampers oil palm expansion in South of anticoagulant-based baits. This is sometimes augmented America.

Its pathogenic basis is in contention although some with biological control using barn owls Tyto alba. Sudden wither or Jungle fringe plantings are prone to damaging attacks by marchitez sorpressiva used to be a serious disease of oil palm larger mammalian pests such as elephants, wild boar, in South America but has been brought under control with porcupines and monkeys. Blast is an important nursery-seedling disease in K West Africa. The causal agent is unknown but a vector Recilia mica, Jessidae has been implicated.

Palms generally recover readily from the disease with no apparent defect but severe and extended symptoms retard early N development and reduce yield. The subtending leaf of a ripe bunch is usually removed at harvesting. However, not every leaf will carry a fruit bunch Fig. Estimated annual nitrogen N and potassium K uptake and regular pruning is necessary to remove excess leaves.

In early palm maturity pruning twice a year is needed but when fully mature, an annual plantings. Over-pruning, especially during early borate and copper sulphate or zinc sulphate, respectively. Pruned leaves are spread over the inter-rows as The system of fertilizer recommendations and management organic mulch and are very effective for soil conservation.

Palm nutrient Soil and water conservation Soil erosion can be very serious requirements are estimated based on the nutrient balance especially when hilly terrains are cleared for planting. Despite approach where nutrient inputs from the soil, recycled in palm the high annual rainfall in the tropics, periodic water stress is residues and mill by-products and from the rain are balanced not unusual due to uneven distribution of rainfall and high against nutrients exported through the crop, immobilized in evapotranspiration demand.

The need for effective soil and the tissues and lost via run-off, leaching or soil immobilization water conservation is well recognized and emphasized in well- Fig. Any shortfall is augmented as applied fertilizers. This is due to its potential for INFERS has been developed for the diagnosis of fertilizer very rapid vegetative growth and the precocious and very requirement in Malaysia and has been subsequently expanded rapidly ascending yield pattern from the onset of maturity to into an oil palm agronomic recommendation system called peak yields in years 8—10 after planting.

This system includes an empirical site yield of nutrients particularly nitrogen N and potassium K are potential model ASYP , to estimate the yield potential for immobilized each year in the vegetative tissue and exported in each unique site; INFERS, to provide a balanced nutrition for the harvested crop Fig. Among the micronutrients, boron B and production Fertilizers is most important especially on sandy soils.

Applications of copper Cu and zinc Zn are often required with peat Fig. Components of nutrient balance in oil palm. A Global within 24 hours. The sterilized FFB are then mechanically threshed to strip off the fruit. The stripped fruit are tative growth and root vigour. Otherwise, ablation is unneces- then sent to a mechanical digester, which pulps and heats the sary. Usually a round of sanitation pruning removal of dried, mesocarp to rupture the oil-bearing cells.

Extraction of kernel oil more loose fruit lost and high FFA levels in the oil. The is carried out in a separate mill usually outside the plantation. Traditionally, oil palm plantations are divided annual cycle. Harvesting of ripe bunches is therefore a year- into c. Although soil and terrain are round activity done at intervals of 8—14 days. Harvesting at usually taken into consideration in delineating blocks, it is often intervals of 7 days or less is usually not economic especially not possible to achieve a satisfactory degree of uniformity during the trough period.

Conversely, harvesting intervals within the blocks for uniform application of inputs. Variable Rate Application VRA technologies, the reduction in Any ripe bunches inadvertently missed will become seriously size of the management units to that of the size of a harvesting over ripe or rotten by the next harvest. Harvesting intervals of task of about 1 ha for yield monitoring and application of 10 days are recommended but may be extended to 15 days fertilizer and other inputs is now feasible.

Harvesting is done manually by skilled harvesters. It may sharp cutting edge. Go to Conservation Land Management. Jules Janick and Robert E Paull. Click to have a closer look. About this book Customer reviews Related titles. About this book This major reference offers a comprehensive collection of information on temperate and tropical fruit and nut crops. Customer Reviews Review this book. Great site, always up-to-date on the latest developments of this growing field of research.

Resources for Molecular and Cell Biologists" http: Plants of the World. The Book of Seeds. A Guide to Plant Galls in Britain. The Kew Plant Glossary. Guide to Collecting Herbarium Specimens in the Field. Guide to Floodplain Meadows. British and Irish Butterflies. Grazing Ecology and Forest History. Weeds and Weed Management on Arable Land. Vegetable Brassicas and Related Crucifers.