205: Rhythms in 4 (Complete Guitar Workout)

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Guitar lessons on Skype. Beginner , Fretboard , Left hand ,. Learn how to move your fingers on the guitar fretboard. Basics required for this lesson: How to read an online guitar tab , Practice this lesson: Nothing else matters 3. Increased mean core temperature and decreased period amplitude are relatively robust findings in depressed patients Avery et al. Recent studies have shown that oscillations in plasma cortisol and norepinephrine are phase-advanced in depressed patients compared to healthy subjects Koenigsberg et al.

Social zeitgebers time givers refer to social and occupational routines, demands, and tasks that can entrain the master clock. Cortisol response to negative events is attenuated in depressed patients compared to healthy subjects Peeters et al. Abnormal levels and patterns of melatonin secretion have also been observed in depressed patients in some Claustrat et al. It is important to note that the circadian controls of cortisol, temperature, and melatonin differ and that alterations in any one control is likely to have significant impacts on other circadian controls.

For example, a reduction in amplitude of hour cortisol levels is apparent in non-psychotic depressed patients, but not in patients with the psychotic subtype of depression Posener et al. Additionally, a growing number of studies indicate that genetic vulnerability moderate the nature of circadian disturbances in mood disorders. Among the circadian disturbances associated with depression, sleep disturbances are by far the most common and robustly observed.

Subjective sleep complaints are common in mood disordered patients. Of note, winter-onset SAD is typically associated with hypersomnia, whereas less common summer-onset SAD is associated with insomnia Saeed and Bruce, In bipolar disorder, insomnia often precedes and persists during manic episodes, whereas both insomnia and hypersomnia can precipitate and perpetuate depressive episodes and symptoms Goodwin and Jamison, Objective measures of sleep are also disturbed in mood disorders Thase et al.

The latency between sleep onset and the first episode of REM sleep is typically shortened in depressed compared to healthy subjects. Depressed patients exhibit increased duration of REM sleep, increased number of eye movements during REM sleep, and decreases in slow-wave sleep compared to healthy subjects Shaffery et al.

Based on this finding, Kupfer and colleagues proposed that shortened REM latency may be a dependable marker for depressive disease, which could even be used to distinguish primary from secondary depression Kupfer, , although later studies challenged this hypothesis Thase et al. Nevertheless, shortened REM sleep latency appears to be a common marker of mood disorders Benca et al. There is clinical and epidemiological evidence that sleep disturbances in depression constitute a risk factor for poor clinical outcomes.

Specifically, insomnia complaints precede the onset and recurrence of depression Cole and Dendukuri, ; Perlis et al. The risk of developing major depression is significantly increased in individuals complaining of insomnia e. Furthermore, insomnia and hypersomnia complaints are associated with increased suicidality Agargun et al. Sleep disturbances in depression also predict treatment outcomes. Specifically, poor sleep quality predicts poor response to non-pharmacological treatments of depression Buysse et al.

The persistence of REM sleep anomalies and of poor sleep quality post-psychotherapy treatment for depression is associated with non-response Buysse et al. Finally, subjectively reported better sleep quality post-treatment is associated with lower rates of recurrence of depression Buysse et al. Together, these observations suggest a critical role for circadian and sleep disturbances in the pathophysiology of depression. Based on the aforementioned observations, several circadian hypotheses of depression have been proposed.

The phase-shift hypotheses of depression proposed that mood disturbances result from a phase advance or delay of the central pacemaker and related circadian rhythms that regulate temperature, cortisol, melatonin, and REM sleep relative to other circadian rhythms, and with a marked phase-shift relative to the sleep-wake rhythm. Findings indicative of advanced circadian phase such as early morning awakenings, earlier occurrence of REM sleep relative to sleep onset, and melatonin secretion shift in patients with depression compared to non-depressed subjects were thought to reflect a phase shift in the circadian oscillator that controls these parameters.

Furthermore, the finding that advancing sleep episodes in depressed patients, thereby reducing the mismatch in circadian and sleep phases, was associated with improvements in mood also supported this hypothesis Wehr et al. Similarly, antidepressant medications, such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors and mood stabilizers, were found to extend the endogenous circadian period in mood disordered patients Kripke, However, more thorough comparisons of the circadian periods in depressed and healthy subjects failed to consistently support the phase-advance hypothesis.

For instance, the distribution of REM sleep across the hour cycle, and core temperature or cortisol secretion rhythms are not consistently advanced in depressed patients Avery et al. Nevertheless, the phase advance hypotheses have stimulated the development and testing of interventions based on circadian principles. Another circadian hypothesis of depression was based on the early observation that REM sleep latency is shortened in depression Argyropoulos and Wilson, ; Kupfer, ; Benca et al.

However, shorted REM latency is not specific to depression Thase et al. The social rhythms hypothesis of depression emphasizes the role of disruption of social rhythms in the etiology of depression and associated changes in physiological rhythms Ehlers et al. This circadian hypothesis of depression suggests that vulnerable individuals exhibit more severe circadian and sleep disturbances with the disruption of social rhythms, and that the resulting disruption of nonphotic zeitgebers which normally entrain physiological circadian rhythms triggers depressive episodes. Several studies have indeed shown that social rhythms are disrupted and less regular in patients suffering from mood and anxiety disorders as well as in individuals undergoing stressful life events Frank et al.

Increased regularity of social rhythms is associated with better sleep quality and reduced severity of depressive symptoms Brown et al. Nevertheless, there is limited evidence that disruption of social rhythms disrupts physiological rhythms in depression. Polymorphisms in clock-related genes may constitute a critical mechanism by which circadian and sleep disturbances predispose individuals to depressive illnesses Bunney and Bunney, While this hypothesis provides innovative research and clinical avenues, this promising area is in an early stage of development and further research is necessary to understand the relationships between clock gene polymorphisms, depressive illnesses, and treatment response.

The occurrence of one particular single nucleotide polymorphism in the human clock gene, TC, has not been found to be associated with susceptibility to unipolar depression or bipolar disorder Bailer et al. Nevertheless, clock gene polymorphisms have been associated with disease chronicity in patients with bipolar disorder Benedetti et al. Similar polymorphisms may more specifically affect sleep and the occurrence of insomnia in depressed patients Serretti et al.

There is also some preliminary evidence suggesting that circadian and sleep disturbances in mood disorders may involve multiple gene polymorphisms. Light therapy has also been associated with reduced suicidal ideation Lam et al. Side effects associated with light therapy include eyestrain, headache, nausea, and agitation, and are generally milder than those reported with antidepressant medications.

Hypomania can occur as a potential adverse effect Terman and Terman, ; Tuunainen et al. Exposure to light in the early morning is more effective than in the evening Lewy et al. Morning light therapy produces an advance in the timing of the circadian melatonin rhythm, and the magnitude of the phase advance produced is correlated with the improvement in depression symptoms Terman et al.

Light therapy is moderately effective in relieving the symptoms of non-seasonal depression Wirz-Justice et al. A meta-analysis of 20 randomized, controlled studies concluded that light therapy shows modest but promising antidepressant efficacy in non-seasonal depression Tuunainen et al. Positive findings regarding the efficacy of light therapy have been reported in recent controlled studies Epperson et al. Nevertheless, light therapy may be used as an adjunct to other antidepressant interventions, and provides a viable alternative in drug resistant depression and in cases where drug treatment may be inappropriate Wirz-Justice et al.

Light therapy also reduces depression in institutionalized older adults, who may experience little natural sunlight Sumaya et al. Hypomania is a potential adverse effect of light therapy in SAD and non-seasonal depression Tuunainen et al. This is consistent with the observation that some bipolar patients may be hypersensitive to the melatonin suppressing effects of light Lewy et al , ; Nurnberger et al.

A careful titration and combination of melatonin and timing of light therapy may optimize clinical benefits in patients with mood disorders. However, depressive symptoms generally return after subsequent recovery sleep Wu and Bunney, , so wake therapy is not widely used as monotherapy Wirz-Justice and Van den Hoofdakker, Combination of wake therapy with other treatments, including lithium, SSRIs, and light therapy shows promise in achieving a rapid and maintained therapeutic response Benedetti et al.

Social rhythm therapy SRT is another promising approach that targets the regularization of circadian rhythmicity in patients with bipolar disorder Frank et al. This intervention is based on the hypothesis that genetic vulnerability, psychosocial stressors, and circadian rhythmicity are intricately related, and directly influence adherence to pharmacotherapy.

The SRT first involves the identification of unstable rhythms, and the identification of stabilizing goals e. However, the efficacy of SRT has not yet been formally evaluated in unipolar depressed patients. Emerging evidence suggests that standard behavioural interventions shown to be effective to reduce primary insomnia can also effectively reduce insomnia occurring in the context of depression and other chronic medical conditions associated with depressive symptoms, and have direct beneficial effects on daytime symptoms of depression Edinger et al.

Behavioral treatments such as stimulus control and sleep restriction are thought to enhance circadian rhythmicity and sleep homeostasis, respectively. Stimulus control aims at restricting the use of the sleep environment bed, bedroom to sleep and sexual activity , and may directly address sleep avoidance and compensatory behaviors that disrupt circadian sleep-wake regulation mechanisms Bootzin and Nicassio, Sleep restriction involves the implementation of a regular sleep-wake schedule, which limits the time spent in bed while awake and favors sleep consolidation Spielman, Stimulus control and sleep restriction allow for the normalization of the two processes that control sleep by aligning the timing and duration of sleep.

Given the close relationships between circadian processes and mood, and the involvement of common neurotransmitter systems, including the serotonin and noradrenergic systems, effective antidepressant treatments have marked effects on circadian processes, and especially on sleep for reviews see Tsuno et al. Although there is variation between individual drugs, tricyclic antidepressants TCAs generally shorten sleep latency and improve sleep continuity in depressed patients, and may be associated with daytime drowsiness.

An increase in REM sleep latency was found to predict clinical response in patients treated with amitryptyline Kupfer et al. These observations led to the suggestion that suppression of REM sleep is the key mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs Vogel, However, subsequent studies have infirmed the hypothesis that REM sleep is depressogenic. At best, REM sleep changes with antidepressant medications may reflect underlying circadian effects. REM sleep suppression has also been observed with newer antidepressants, such as venlafaxine, trazodone and bupropion.

There is little evidence that circadian processes mediate the antidepressant effects of these different agents. New antidepressants, such as agomelatine, which has both melatonergic and serotonergic receptor action profiles Millan et al. Agomelatine can entrain free-running circadian rhythms in rats kept in total darkness in a similar way to melatonin Martinet et al. Administration of agomelatine and melatonin five hours prior to bedtime both increased REM sleep duration and REM sleep percentage in the first part of the night compared to placebo Cajochen et al.

Whether mood improvements in depressed patients associated with agomelatine directly relate to normalization of circadian and sleep alterations remains to be determined.

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Both electroconvulsive therapy ECT, Coffey et al. ECT also normalizes the timing and increases the amplitude of circadian temperature rhythm in depressed patients Szuba et al. Thus, these non-pharmacologic antidepressant treatments may also act on sleep and other circadian systems. The control of circadian rhythms and sleep is complex and involves the fine orchestration of multiple molecular, biochemical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms.

While this complexity promotes adaptability and survival, this complexity also gives rise to potential internal conflicts. The current industrialized society where artificial light is available at all times and extended and irregular sleep-wake schedules are common may impose profound strain on the circadian systems, and expose their vulnerabilities. Several lines of evidence briefly reviewed here converge and support the hypothesis that circadian and sleep disturbances may play a critical role in the pathophysiology of mood disorders.

Recent progress in understanding the molecular and cellular chronobiological mechanisms opens exciting avenues to research to elucidate the underpinnings of the relationships between circadian rhythm disturbances, including sleep disturbances, and clinical mood disorders. A variety of pharmacological and behavioral strategies, as well as novel agents, can be used to further probe these relationships.

Clarifying the relationships between biological clock functions and mood regulation will provide novel insights and new avenues into the development of effective treatment strategies. Special thanks to Dr. Alan Larkman for his assistance in the preparation of this manuscript.

Germain received financial support from Servier for the preparation of this manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Author manuscript; available in PMC Oct 1. Anne Germain , Ph. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Hum Psychopharmacol.

See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Objective The aim of this article is to review progress in understanding the mechanisms that underlie circadian and sleep rhythms, and their role in the pathogenesis and treatment of depression. Results Many physiological processes show circadian rhythms of activity.

Conclusions Recent progress in understanding chronobiological and sleep regulation mechanisms may provide novel insights and avenues into the development of new pharmacological and behavioral treatment strategies for mood disorders. Introduction Living organisms show a wide range of cyclical physiological changes across the hour period. Generation and synchronization of biological rhythms in mammals Central and peripheral oscillators All living organisms are characterized by endogenous, cyclic rhythmicity of a wide variety of biological and behavioral processes.

Inputs and outputs of the central pacemaker In small and simple organisms, light may act directly as a zeitgeber at peripheral oscillators. Normal sleep-wake regulation Sleeping and waking are the most overt manifestations of the mammalian circadian system. Summary Findings presented here highlight the complexity of the multi-level control systems that regulate and orchestrate central and peripheral circadian processes, including sleep and wakefulness.

Circadian rhythm and sleep disturbances in depression Circadian rhythm disturbances and depression Circadian disturbances have been observed in a variety of psychological and physiological domains in depressed patients. Sleep disturbances and depression Among the circadian disturbances associated with depression, sleep disturbances are by far the most common and robustly observed.

Circadian hypotheses of depression Based on the aforementioned observations, several circadian hypotheses of depression have been proposed. Clock gene polymorphisms and depression Polymorphisms in clock-related genes may constitute a critical mechanism by which circadian and sleep disturbances predispose individuals to depressive illnesses Bunney and Bunney, Chronotherapies for depression Light therapy is now an accepted and recommended therapy for the winter-onset form of SAD Depression Guideline Panel, ; Lam and Levitt, ; Rosenthal, Effects of antidepressant treatments on circadian and sleep rhythms Given the close relationships between circadian processes and mood, and the involvement of common neurotransmitter systems, including the serotonin and noradrenergic systems, effective antidepressant treatments have marked effects on circadian processes, and especially on sleep for reviews see Tsuno et al.

Conclusions The control of circadian rhythms and sleep is complex and involves the fine orchestration of multiple molecular, biochemical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms. Footnotes Financial disclosures Dr. Sleep disturbances and suicidal behaviour in patients with major depression. Subjective sleep quality and suicidality in patients with major depression. Sleep complaints among older general practice patients: Br J Gen Pract.

Sleep disturbances in depression and the effects of antidepressants. Human circadian rhythms in activity, body temperature and other functions. Life Sci Space Res. Nocturnal temperature in affective disorder. No association of clock gene TC polymorphism and affective disorders. Dark therapy for mania: Restoration of circadian behavioural rhythms by gene transfer in Drosophila.

Circadian rhythms from multiple oscillators: Sleep and psychiatric disorders. Sleep deprivation hastens the antidepressant action of fluoxetine. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. Ongoing lithium treatment prevents relapse after total sleep deprivation. Morning light treatment hastens the antidepressant effect of citalopram: Influence of CLOCK gene polymorphism on circadian mood fluctuations and illness recurrence in bipolar depression.

Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock.

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Suicides in the midnight sun — a study of seasonality in suicides in West Greenland. Complex interaction of the sleep-wake cycle and circadian phase modulates mood in healthy subjects. Behavioral treatments of insomnia. Progress in behavior modification. Academic Press; New York: A two process model of sleep regulation.

Blue arrows indicate inhibitory projections, while red arrows indicate excitatory projections. Changes in the thickness of the arrows indicate increase thicker arrow or decrease thinner arrow of the projections relative to the normal situation. Light blue, green, and yellow colors denote BG, thalamus, and cortex, respectively. D1 and D2 indicate subtypes of dopamine receptor. This is based on a previous study, which showed an increase in dopamine release and hemodynamic response in the striatum during listening pleasurable music Salimpoor et al.

This idea is also supported by the other studies that showed modulation in the cortico-spinal excitability Stupacher et al. Indeed, a number of studies have shown improvements of motor function in patients with PD during rhythmic auditory stimulation RAS e. However, there remain a few untested assumptions. For example, patients with PD show impaired emotional recognition in music e. Therefore, dopamine release in the striatum may not be increased by music in patients with PD as seen in healthy individuals. Positron emission tomography PET can be used to test this hypothesis Laruelle, ; Salimpoor et al.

A recent study has shown improved perceptual and motor timing in patients with PD after a 4-week music training program with rhythmic auditory cueing Benoit et al. However, the participants of that study consisted only of mild to moderate patients with PD Benoit et al. Future studies will need to clarify whether the RAS is also beneficial for severe patients with PD, and how the therapeutic effect is different. It may also be important to test whether RAS simple metronome stimulation as well as rhythmic musical stimulation improves speech function in patients with PD, given gait functions have been a topic of research interest e.

Stuttering is a developmental condition that affects fluency of speech. Symptoms include repetition of words or parts of words, as well as prolongations of speech sounds, resulting in disruptions in the normal flow of speech. In addition, stuttering is associated with reduced activity and connectivity in the brain network including the BG and the SMA e. To date, examples of fluency shaping methods for stuttering include altered auditory feedback e.

The altered auditory feedback methods are considered to be effective to change the excessive reliance on auditory feedback control, while the other speech production trainings would help to reform feed-forward speech commands. Yet, a therapy that focuses specifically on stimulating the BG-thalamo-cortical circuit to enhance rhythmic speech production would also be warranted Alm, The SEP hypothesis assumes that individuals who stutter may benefit from rhythm-based therapy using synchronization and entrainment to a pulse for stimulating the BG-thalamo-cortical circuit.

Behavioral studies support this notion by showing that the presence of rhythmic auditory signals such as metronome beats, when synchronized with speech production, induces strong fluency-enhancing effects in individuals who stutter e. A recent fMRI study also supports this notion by showing that BG activities of stuttering speakers increased to the level of normal speech controls when speaking with the metronome beats Toyomura et al. Nevertheless, given that stuttering is a relapse-prone disorder Craig, , long-term management strategies are likely to be useful when dealing with this disorder over a lifetime.

Accordingly, future studies need to test how long the metronome-induced fluency sustains after removing the rhythmic sounds. It has been suggested that the BG-thalamo-SMA circuit is dominant for self-initiation of speech, while the PMC-thalamo-cerebellar circuit is dominant for externally cued speech Alm, Therefore, one of the challenges for future studies is to transition from the externally cued PMC-centered speech to self-initiated SMA-centered speech in the treatments using metronome-guided cues.

To engage the BG-thalamo-SMA circuit, it may be useful to use non-isochronous metronome stimuli to promote the patients to find a pulse and initiate rhythmic speech by themselves. In addition, future studies need to test whether structural and functional reorganization occur in the BG-thalamo-cortical circuit after the intervention using the rhythmic auditory cues. Concurrently, more basic studies are needed to clarify whether the neural underpinnings of stuttering overlap with those of rhythm processing in music.

Investigations of the abilities of musical rhythm processing in individuals who stutter using an amusia battery e. In addition, there is a need to test whether synchronization to a pulse in music have the similar fluency-enhancing effect for stuttering speakers compared with the synchronization to a metronome. Aphasia is a common and devastating consequence of stroke or other brain injuries that results in language-related dysfunction. Many patients with large left hemisphere lesions have poor prognosis, despite having received years of intensive speech therapy Lazar et al.

However, emerging evidence suggests that some techniques have the potential to improve the verbal communication skills of these patients, as well as to reorganize the underlying neural processes related to language. For example, inspired by the clinical observation that patients with non-fluent aphasia can sing words even though they are unable to speak Gerstmann, ; Yamadori et al.

The main components of this speech therapy technique are 1 melodic intonation, 2 the use of formulaic phrases and sentences, and 3 slow and periodic verbalization with left-hand tapping Schlaug et al. Emerging evidence involving open-label studies has revealed some positive treatment effects Wilson et al. The contribution of singing is supported by the neuroimaging findings of right hemisphere lateralization of singing processing when compared to speaking e. However, it is important to note that the latter studies often included patients with very large lesions that sometimes cover most of the left hemisphere, thus precluding analysis of language-related areas within that hemisphere.

Recent studies have highlighted the potential role of rhythm in aphasia treatment. For example, aphasia recovery, as denoted by correct syllable production, was examined by comparing singing therapy, rhythmic therapy, and standard speech therapy Stahl et al. The results showed that, when compared to singing therapy, the rhythmic therapy was similarly effective Stahl et al.

Moreover, patients with lesions that cover the BG were found to be highly dependent on the external rhythmic cues Stahl et al. Taken together, this study highlights the role of rhythm in aphasia recovery. The SEP hypothesis postulates that the rhythmic components e. That is, the predictability of formulaic phrases and sentences requires precise encoding of pulse or periodic timing of vocalizations, while left-hand tapping can facilitate synchronization and entrainment to the pulse.

A rationale for MIT is the potential to engage and unmask language-capable regions in the unaffected right hemisphere such as the structural reorganization of arcuate fasciculus, a fiber bundle connecting the posterior superior temporal region and the posterior inferior frontal region Schlaug et al. If MIT engages high demands on the right temporal cortex to encode sound envelope precisely, it may also increase the connectivity from the right temporal cortex to the right inferior frontal gyrus IFG. Importantly, rhythmic therapy in aphasia patients with left basal ganglia lesion resulted in improved production of common formulaic phrases that are known to be supported by right BG-thalamo-cortical network Stahl et al.

The left-hand tapping in MIT might be also interpreted as a way to recruit enlarged involvement of contralateral right motor areas i. One of the core features of autism spectrum disorder ASD is impairment in language and communication. For children with ASD, the ability to speak early is associated with improved quality of life. Research has reported the presence of motor and oral-motor impairments in ASD children who have expressive language deficits Belmonte et al.

To date, very few interventions have specifically targeted the oral-motor aspects in ASD. Another therapy technique that incorporates a motor component is auditory-motor mapping training AMMT , which is an active multisensory therapy designed to facilitate speech output in completely non-verbal children with autism Wan et al.

This technique aims to promote speech production directly by training the association between speech sounds and articulatory actions using slow and melodic intonating vocalizations with bimanual motor activities Wan et al. An initial proof-of-concept study indicated the therapeutic potential of AMMT in facilitating speech development in autism Wan et al. The former relates to intoned vocalizations, and the latter relates to spoken syllables being linked with the bimanual motor actions on the tuned drums. First, perception of rhythmic drumming and vocal sounds may stimulate the auditory afferent circuit for the precise encoding of sound envelope or temporal events.

Indeed, it has been shown that ASD is associated with developmental abnormalities in the brainstem and cerebellum in utero , which can lead to abnormal timing and sensory perception in ASD Trevarthen and Delafield-Butt, Second, synchronization and entrainment of rhythmic vocalizations and bimanual motor actions may be effective to stimulate the speech motor and language networks in ASD. In this paper, we consider the role of rhythm in speech and language rehabilitation.

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The emerging research field of music and neuroscience led us to propose the SEP hypothesis, which postulates that 1 sound envelope processing and 2 synchronization and entrainment to a pulse, may help to stimulate brain networks for human communication. Within the SEP framework, we present four possible circuits that may help to stimulate the brain networks underlying human communication: We hope that future studies combining neuroimaging techniques and randomized control designs with the SEP framework will help to evaluate the efficacy of the rhythm-based therapies.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Front Hum Neurosci v. Published online Oct Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jul 3; Accepted Sep The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.

No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract For thousands of years, human beings have engaged in rhythmic activities such as drumming, dancing, and singing. Introduction Human beings have universally engaged in rhythmic musical activities such as drumming, dancing, singing, and playing musical instruments since ancient times e.

Rhythm as a Medium of Communication Rhythm, or the temporal organization of perceived or produced events, mediates communication and social interaction. The Role of Rhythm in Speech Rhythm is essential to the understanding of speech. Open in a separate window. Neural Correlates of Rhythmic Speech Perception A question arises then, regarding how rhythm or sound envelope is processed in the brain.

Neural Correlates of Rhythmic Speech Production In the previous section, we described the neural correlates of sound envelope or rhythm processing in speech perception.

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Auditory afferent circuit According to the OPERA hypothesis, musical activities place high demands on precise encoding of acoustic features including the sound envelope Patel, , , Subcortical—prefrontal circuit Rhythm perception or sound envelope processing in music may engage neural activities in the subcortical—prefrontal circuit relevant for emotional processing. BG-thalamo-cortical circuit Synchronization and entrainment to a pulse in music may place high demands on information process in the BG-thalamo-cortical circuit.

Stuttering Stuttering is a developmental condition that affects fluency of speech. Aphasia Aphasia is a common and devastating consequence of stroke or other brain injuries that results in language-related dysfunction. Autism One of the core features of autism spectrum disorder ASD is impairment in language and communication.

Conclusion In this paper, we consider the role of rhythm in speech and language rehabilitation. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Right-hemisphere auditory cortex is dominant for coding syllable patterns in speech. Abnormal cortical processing of the syllable rate of speech in poor readers. Speech comprehension is correlated with temporal response patterns recorded from auditory cortex. Stuttering and the basal ganglia circuits: The effect of SpeechEasy on stuttering frequency, speech rate, and speech naturalness.

Oral motor deficits in speech-impaired children with autism. Six-month-old infants discriminate voicing on the basis of temporal envelope cues L. Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion.

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