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Tangolosos, Deb Stefenmacher Indielibros Australia: Manual Pratico de Confeitera Senac Canada: The kennings are usually explained in parentheses. In comparison, Eddic poetry does not usually need to be disentangled or deconstructed before it can be understood and its mode of expression is usually considered to be more straightforward than that of skaldic poetry. The greater part of the surviving Eddic poetry is preserved in the so-called Codex Regius CR , 11a manuscript volume which has been dated to c. At some point before this date the thirty or so poems that this manuscript originally contained were collected and written down by an editor who arranged the poetry into two distinct heroic.

There are also a number of poems which do not belong to the CR but which are so like the poetry it contains that they are normally also classified as Eddic. Some of these poems have mythological subject matter, e. GrtmttasQngr, Baldrs draumar, and Rzgspiila the last of which is preserved in a manuscript of Snorri Sturluson's Edda and treats of the origin and structure of human society. Odense Universitty Press, , pp. Part one covers poetry from to , and part two from to The arrangement of the volume embodies a myriad of decisions about the assignment of stanzas to poets, the reconstruction of fragments into extended poems, and the probable chronological sequence of the whole.

Much of this is doubtless right, but any impression of canonical status is bound to be dangerously decisions detailed 14 misleading, and some may not stand up to scrutiny. Not only did both these works contribute greatly to the field of Old Norse studies in general, but they were also instrumental in the establishment of the concept of skaldic poetry as a distinct genre and helped to make the use of this term, in its modem restrictive sense, widespread.

To recapitulate, then, Eddic poetry has been traditionally perceived as timeless, pagan and of mysteriously indeterminate origin. Of the poetry included in CR, only a fraction is preserved elsewhere, which means that most of the poems are unique 15Skaldic poetry does not have the same rarity value, as it is mostly preserved examples. Other sources include the Karlevi stanza and some runic verses carved on wood from the twelfth century and later.

The Karlevi stone was erected around the turn of the last millennium in Oland, Sweden to honour a Danish warrior and sea captain. It is carved on three sides with a long description in Danish runes. The inscription falls in two parts, the first of which explains why the stone is where it is, and the second of which is an eight-line stanza which adheres strictly to the drottkuartt metre. Blackwell, , pp. Later, in the saga- period, new poems of the Eddic kind were composed for inclusion in fornaldarsggur on the model of I 'Qfrunlgarasa.

Much of it is also presumed to postdate Eddic poetry, partly because it makes use of the mythological and heroic subject matter contained in CR, but also because of its highly developed metre and style. Another reason why skaldic poetry has traditionally had less appeal for certain readers is that a good deal of it shows Christian and other outside influences.

Therefore although the skaldic corpus is much larger than the Eddic, much more research has been done on Eddic poetry, proportionally, than on skaldic poetry, although the emphasis has begun to shift in recent years. This prejudice in favour of Eddic poetry can be explained by a number of other factors, one of these being the intellectual climate in which the CA manuscript was received when it was rediscovered in Iceland in Up until this time Snorri Sturluson's Edda was the only comprehensive account of Norse mythology from the Middle Ages.

Snorri's work, which is in prose, although it quotes frequently from Old Norse poetry, is preserved in four manuscripts, of which one, the Codex Upsaliensis c. The bishop later sent the manuscript as a gift to the bibliophile king, Frederik III, in Copenhagen where, like his other manuscripts, it was referred to as Codex Regiusand acquired the number 4to. It remained in Copenhagen until it was returned to the Icelandic people by the Danish state in Snorri was eventually established as the sole author of the prose work or Snorra Edda, and the theory that Sxmundr composed the poetry of the CR has since been discredited.

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These things have now to be told to young poets who desire to learn the language of poetry and to furnish themselves with a wide vocabulary using traditional terms; or else they desire to be able to understand what is expressed obscurely. Then let such a one take this book as scholarly enquiry and entertainment. But these stories are not to be consigned to oblivion or demonstrated to be false, so as to deprive poetry of ancient kennings which major poets have been happy to use.

Clarendon Press, , p. It is catalogued as AM I -sto and contains five of the poems found in CR and one Baldrs draumr for which it is our sole source. Viking Society for Northern Research, , I, p. Even-man, , p. However, several Icelandic poets of the later Middle Ages admit that they are not following the rules of the Snorra Edda exactly in their compositions, and while some apologise for this, many make little secret of the fact that they consider traditional skaldic poetry to be decadent, outmoded and obscure. The author of the fourteenth-century Christian poem Li ja, for instance, is probably referring to the language of skaldic poetry when he writes: Whoever chooses to write poetry in the difficult manner chooses to deliver so many veiled ancient words that they can scarcely be counted.

I declare that this hampers understanding. Therefore I choose that here plain words may be discerned and language in accordance with my intention so that all people clearly understand my I desire that the poem be Lily. We have noted above that one of the chief distinctions between Eddic and skaldic poetry is that the latter is not anonymous.

The problem with the use of this term to designate one particular type of poetry is that it excludes by definition the many verse utterances in the sagas recited by individuals not otherwise known as skalds. Eddic Lay and Skaldic Verre, trans. University of Nebraska Press, , p. Even though the composition of such poetry was illegal and punishable by total outlawry or even death, this prohibition did not seem to deter the skalds and the composition of slanderous verses, or niduisrrt; was widely practised. Egill Skalla-Grimsson was one of the early masters of deadly invective of this kind, as can be seen in one of the examples of his verse quoted below.

The Norwegian kings are believed to have had whole troops of poets in their entourage, whose job it was to provide entertainment and to compose praise-poetry in their honour. When skalds were not in the service of a king or earl, they farmed, traded, and 23Roberta Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry: Cornell University Press, , p. It is basically a catalogue of Scandinavian rulers accompanied by the names of poets who composed in their honour. Covering a period of years, it enumerates a total of Icelandic court poets, from Egill Skalla-Grimsson to his descendant Jon murti 'little fellow' Egilsson d.

Most kings have a whole group of skalds attached to their names and such a list must have been a very useful aid for any author of the konungasQgur kings' sagas , since for the earliest reigns poems on Northern rulers were the best sources of information available to them. Unfortunately names are all we have of the skalds listed in Skdldatal whose poetry has not survived to modern times, but their sheer number gives us some idea of the extent of a once-existing great corpus of which we have now but a fragment.

However, whether Bragi ever actually existed is open to question, as Bjarne Fidjestol points out: Possibly the name belongs to a historical person and efforts have been made to demonstrate that it did [ His cognomen links him to the region around Kvinesdal but there is not much else we can know about DjOo6lfr. This is chiefly because he belongs to the interim period between pre-history and history in the Norwegian past, a period which coincided with, and was connected with, the migration to Iceland.

Thus the first poets we know of were Norwegian, but it was the Icelanders who became the kings' poets at court, as the Norwegian gift for skaldic poetry waned in the face of Continental European cultural influences. The Icelandic poets Egill, - incidentally, is the first known native Icelandic skald - were seen as being especially 2.

Alianza, , p. Tue diestro en el manejo de la espada, con la que math. In Egils sagathe gift of poetic composition also appears to be a family trait passed down from one generation to another. Qlvir composed many love poems about her and was so taken with her that he even gave up going on raids, but he went on to become a highly-esteemed poet in the court of King Haraldr.

In chapter 24 of the saga, Egill's grandfather 1, ', veld-Olfr takes to his bed, overcome with grief, when he hears about the death of his son D rolfr. Form and Content The verse-form makes a text easier to remember and to remember accurately. Metre has aesthetic functions over and above this: These however may be regarded as derivative qualities. If a text is put into verse-form, it is because it is a text thought to be worth remembering. In dealing with oral composition and transmission in a history of literature, the question of form is central to the theme.

Snorri devotes one full section, the third and final part of his Edda to listing and giving examples of the different metres available to the poet. Metre was clearly seen as fundamental to the composition of good quality poetry. One interesting aspect of Old Icelandic metre is that certain forms were apparently deemed suitable for certain subjects, and in the case of what is considered to be the oldest Old Icelandic poetic metre, fornyrrYislag,that function is contained within the name. The problem with categorising fornyrt islag as an Eddic metre is that it was also used in some poetry that is considered to be skaldic.

In poems composed in such a measure, syllables and line endings are not counted strictly, nor, according to Turville-Petre, are the earliest Eddic poems really i. He attributes syllable counting and strophes in the later Eddic poems to skaldic influence. Eddic poetry has neither internal nor end rhyme. A forny islag line breaks up into two half lines which are linked by alliteration and broken by a metrical caesura.

Initial vowels in stressed syllables alliterate with each other and with j. Unstressed syllables do not enter into the schema. The first half-line of each line can have either one alliterating sellable or two. If the primary stresses are both on nouns or adjectives, it is the first primary stress that must carry alliteration. The second half-line is always limited to a single alliteration which must coincide with the first strongly stressed syllable.

LjdJabdttr differs from all other Old Icelandic metres in that it has a three-part rather than a two-part structure. Syllables may be weighed as long or short, and in cases of what is called resolution, two syllables of which at least the first is short count as one long syllable, e. Regularly used in both extended poems and lausavisur, the loose, random verses of the kind scattered throughout the sagas, it forms the metre of some five-sixths of the skaldic corpus.

It seems to have been practised and appreciated to some extent among all the Scandinavians of the Viking Age, but the evidence for it comes almost exclusively from Norway, Orkney and Iceland. Around 21, lines of drzttkvatt verse survive, attributed to poets who lived between about and The second strophe describes a storm at sea. Translation Thus should the gods repay him for the robbery of my property. May the gods drive the king from his lands. AI, and IF 2. The stanzas are divided into two half-stanzas which are metrically independent and often syntactically so, and which in the sagas are sometimes preserved as separate entities called helmingar.

As we have mentioned above, another fundamental requirement of skaldic poetry is that it is syllable-counting. In the above examples we can see that apart from the second line of the first verse the number of syllables in each half-line adds up to six. In the verses above the alliterating letters are indicated in bold font. Thus, for example, in the first two lines of st. Individual lines also contain pairs of internal rhymes, or hendingar,which link the sounds in stressed syllables. The is second stress always on the penultimate syllable.

There are two types of internal rhyme: In the above examples internal rhyme is indicated by underlining. The postvocalic consonants are Id, which rhyme with those in another stressed syllable in the line: The following line has full internal rhyme in that the -ox-,-el and consonant , group pnd in the penultimate syllable, rhymes with bend. Press, , p. It is the adherence to these strict constraints in the composition of a skaldic stanza which results in an unnatural word order and clause- arrangement, or at least a word order very unlike that of prose.

In some cases this choice will be motivated by metre and in others by meaning. There is no other r in the line with which the r in sty'ri can rhyme. Furthermore, as Eirikr has been referred to asfolkmygi r oppressor of men in line 5 perhaps lofda stridi r is also preferable semantically. In general, however, the tendency to emend texts in such a way as to fit the requirement of the metrical form is declining and increasingly frowned upon.

These are some, although by no means all, of the problems that editors of medieval manuscripts must address before arriving at a fixed text even though no such fixed text is stable for very long as multi-interpretations continually suggest themselves.

Jesús Ferrero

In Old Icelandic poetry the most prominent devices for achieving artistic effect, and which are found in abundance, are heiti and kennings. Heiti appear frequently in skaldic poetry, but relatively rarely in the PoeticEdda, and virtually never in prose. The main purpose of such synonyms was to avoid monotonous repetition. In our first example, for instance, Egill uses four different terms to refer to the gods or to a god apart from using proper names: He leads the army, and so he is called fylkir cf. Another type of heiti occurs when a part of the object designated may be used metonymically for the whole, e.

The kenning is an even more striking feature of skaldic diction. It consists in its simplest forms either of two nouns, one of them in the genitive case, or of two nouns combined to form a compound word. In the case of a two-noun kenning it is the noun in its genitive case that constitutes the determinant; in the case of a compound-word kenning, it is the first element in the compound that does so. The enemy of an upright post, possibly a mast in this context, is the wind or storm because the wind could cause a mast or tree to be knocked down or uprooted.

Society for the Study of Mediaeval Languages and Literature, , pp. As for compound word kennings, folkmjgir st. As we have noted above, skaldic poetry was oral in character. It was composed to be uttered aloud and, bearing in mind the complexity- of the language, it is fair to ask, before we begin to appreciate it ourselves, what the expectations of the medieval audience were and how they understood it. We can assume that a contemporary audience expected, and was used to, the skewed word order and clause-arrangement.

The fact that these strophes have been remembered and recorded means that they must have been learned and repeated by others. The medieval audience would have understood, then, the message or content of the verse, adorned as it is with kennings and complicated word order.

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What is more uncertain is whether the skalds deliberately selected specific kennings to create particular images or moods, or how conscious their choice of vocabulary was. Looking briefly at Hallvard Lie's translation of stanza 28, for example, we can see that he has linked the lines in pairs by alliteration alliterative letters are indicated in bold , and has managed to do so without greatly affecting the overall significance of the stanza. La folkplageren flykte, Make the people-plaguer flee, Froy og Njord, fra Norge!

Freyr and NjQror, from Norway! Of course translating any Old Icelandic text into Spanish presents far greater challenges than translating into Norwegian. Mfiraguano, , p. We can also see in the above examples how the Spanish translation better accommodates the subjunctive mood of the verbs in the original skyldi, reki, se,etc. Overviewof RecentResearch on Skaldic Poetry' Until the s, research on skaldic poetry was relatively scarce, and of the books and articles which were published, the vast majority were written in Scandinavian languages. Anteckningar till Edda och Skaldediktning, which consisted in a series of twenty-eight volumes of detailed notes and commentary on 45In the Norwegian stanza above, for example, almost every word presents an Old Norse etymology, e.

Ein BeitragZur skaldischenPoetik, one of the standard works on kennings. In a later monograph in Dutch, De skaldenkenningen met inhoud , Jan de Vries examines the mythological content of mythologischen kennings. In the first fifty years of the twentieth century, however, only one publication on the subject of skaldic poetry was published in English. This was Lee M. A Selectionof Their Poems,With Introductions and Notes , which, as the title suggests, comprises a selection of skaldic poetry including a rendering of Egill's Sonatorrek translated and with a commentary.

From the late s onwards, however, there was a considerable increase in the number of English-language publications on skaldic poetry, of which the two most important are Gabriel Turville-Petre's ScaldicPoetry and Roberta Frank's study, Old Norse Court Poetry: Fidjestr l's dissertation on skaldic praise-poetry, Det norrone brstediktet was also a landmark publication in the field, as was Hans Kuhn's major Das Drrittkva'tt Alvheim and Eide, For individual references see bibliography. Cornell University Press, One area of skaldic studies that has generated much scholarship both before and after , as we have seen, is the unique nature of verse in the drrittkva'tt metre.

As regards the poetry of Egils sagathis is particularly true of attempts to interpret the more difficult passagesof Sonatorrrk,whose extreme ambiguity allows for a myriad of different readings. As we have pointed out above, skaldic poetry, unlike Eddic, is in not collected neatly any one manuscript, but is scattered throughout the sagas,Snorri Sturluson's Edda, and Icelandic medieval grammatical treatises; a few verses have even survived as runic inscriptions on stones and sticks. As we have noted above, the other main edition, that of Ernst Literature: Cornell University Press, , pp.

Reprinted with a new preface by Theodore M. University of Toronto Press, Odense University Press, , pp. Viking Society,25 , It has long been felt that these books are outdated and in need of emendation.

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Jon Helgason, Bjarne Fidjestol, and Roberta Frank, among others, have called for a new edition to further the progress of skaldic studies. This project was first conceived in by the current five editors-in-chief, who, when they realised that they would not be able to edit the entire corpus themselves, agreed to invite other researchers to participate as contributors G3 to the edition. This is an area in which interest has increased sharply in recent years. She also demonstrates a unity in Snorri's religious theory and his views of language. In , to commemorate the th anniversary of Snorri Sturluson's death, a collection of essays, edited by Alois Wolf, was published.

Odense University Press, Narr, , pp. Viking Society for Northern Research, In Old IcelandicLiterature and Society,no fewer than seven essays deal with medieval Icelandic poetics. University Press, , pp. Wills will also be responsible for the electronic editing of the skaldic corpus in the project mentioned above.

Inventing the North in Nineteenth-Century Britain, and the latest title on the same theme is an edition with commentary of translations of Old Norse poetry by the eighteenth-century Thomas Percy. Bjarne Fidjestol provides a fascinating and wide-ranging discussion on the financial affairs of court skalds and their patrons.

Her article also examines Norwegian-Icelandic relations and the status of Icelandic S3 poets abroad. Most often they wrote praise-poetry about princes for princes, and as we have seen in Fidjestol , skalds could be economically dependent on the kings or earls, with whom they could also have had close emotional ties. In these sagas the narratives' focus is not on the poets' allegiance to the king, but on their " Skaldemiddeti Berget: Little wonder then that the poet Bjorn Hitdcelakappi encoded his mistress's name in puns in verses addressed to her.

Judith Jesch's study of runic inscriptions also opens up new perspectives on texts which were formerly only available in Skj. ComparativeApproaches to Early Iceland,ed. Hisarlik, , pp. Kia'rlighet, individ ogsamfunni norron middelalder Oslo: Norske Historiske Forening, University of Illinois Press, , pp. Medieval Iceland', alvIssmd, 4 k , Another area of skaldic studies which has seen an upsurge in interest is a re- examination of skaldic verse in the prose context in which it has mostly been preserved.

This was the subject of a chapter by Joseph Harris in , for example, and of Heather O'Donoghue's book Skaldic Verse and the Poeticsof SagaNarrative, which explores the interplay between verse and prose in a number of Icelandic sagas. The case is all but hopeless for skaldic poetry. There are, to be sure, the commentaries accompanying Turville-Petre's and Hollander's translations, but the texts presented are very limited.

There are also, of course, monographic treatments of various important skaldic poems, but these texts are so difficult that such treatments tend generally to limit themselves to comment on language and 94 grammar rather than on content. As we have noted above with regards to the Norse Muse project, scholars are increasingly interested in the contemporaneous and post-medieval reception of Old Norse literature, which, as we shall see in the following chapter, has given rise to a number of studies on translations of Icelandic sagas.

Unfortunately, comparable research on translations of skaldic poetry is practically non-existent. Considering the lack of interpretative it commentary on skaldic verses, seems somewhat strange that such detailed readings as translations provide have been so entirely neglected. As I hope the central chapters of this thesis will show, comparative analyses of translations which in themselves are the most detailed commentary on their sources and their source texts can provide new insights into the beauty and complexity of skaldic poetry, as well as revealing a wealth of information on Old Norse culture and society.

Crosrcultural Perspectives Na, ratii'e in Proseand I 'erne, ed. Brewer, on , pp. Oxford University , Press, , p. A new-found interest in the reception of medieval texts, not only in the age in which they were produced, but also in a post-medieval context, consequently led scholars to query and explore the role translations of medieval literature played in its reception, and it was at this point that Medieval Studies and Translation Studies began to overlap.

At around the same time i. As Maria Tymoczko demonstrates in her study of modem translations of medieval Irish texts which we shall discuss further below , the scope of postcolonial literature does not have to be restricted to writings from Africa, the Indian sub- continent or South America, but can be expanded to include European ex-colonies such as Ireland. By examining Norwegian and Spanish translations, I analyse the less obvious but equally complex relationships between the target cultures and the source culture as I Maria Tyinoczko, Translation in a Po 'Context: St Jerome, , pp.

The cultural and historical context in which the Norwegian and Spanish translations were produced will be examined in more depth in chapter 3. In the pages that follow, I will provide a comprehensive overview of the theories that frame my discussion, incorporating a review of translation studies on Icelandic and medieval literature comparable to my own. While the number of case-studies on translations of Icelandic sagas is relatively plentiful, my study forms part of what is, as yet, a very limited number of works which analyse translations of skaldic poetry in any way, and is the only one to my knowledge which employs a framework of investigation based on postcolonial translation theory.

TheNew Philologyand thePost-medieval Reception of Old Norse Literature In his epistle on the art of printing, father Holberg also touches upon, with his vivid mind, the profession of the philologist. Bogtrykkerkonsten havde veret a'1dere, havde vi haft gamle skrifter correcte, og herde Aland havde vxret forskaanede for det Trxldoms Arbevde at udleede Copiist-Fejl, og at conferere Exemplarier sammen, for nogenleedes at finde den rette Text: Jeg siger nogenleedes, saasom alle skrevne Umage og alle Variantes Lectiones ingen ret Fished kand erhverves"'.

However, although Lie and Holberg might have disagreed on the delights of philological detective work, they certainly both saw the painstaking labour of the philologist as a means to an end and not as an end in itself. Now, medieval writing does not produce variants; it is variance. The endless rewriting to which medieval textuality is subjected, the joyful appropriation of which it is the object, invites us to make a powerful hypothesis: Scholars began to question the premises for the establishment of Medieval Studies and the extent to which that was determined by the socio-political context from which it emerged.

A Critical History of Philology, trans. Johns Hopkins University Press, , pp. Bernard Cerquiglini, Eloge de! Seuil, , p. Report from an International Research Project', alvissmdl, 9 The project resulted in numerous books, articles and conference papers, many of which are detailed in this report. Atlantis, -a collection of nine essays about Old Icelandic poetry and the way this poetry was later used and interpreted in the Scandinavian tradition. Zeit,Hesperides, Letterature e culture 10 Trieste: Edizioni Parnasso, this book is based partly on work done for the occidentali, vol.

Indeed, the ven- act of translating literature into modern Swedish, Danish and later Norwegian paradoxically marked the difference between these languages and their ancient literary heritage even as the translators sought to disavow it. From Snorra Edda to Laufas Edda ca. The Era of Scandinavian Gothicism and Baroque ca. The Nordic Renaissance and Preromanticism ca.

The Decline of National Romanticism ca. However, as I have already stressed, as the Icelandic language became more and more distinct from its Scandinavian relatives, scholarship in Old Norse literature was increasingly only possible outside Iceland through translation.

In chapter 3 we shall see how even by the sixteenth century, texts such as Heimskringla had become unintelligible to the average Norwegian and had to be translated. As the movement of Nationalist Romanticism in Europe grew, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, Germans, and the English in particular, eagerly seized on the texts that they believed contained the treasures of their ancient Germanic heritage and translated them for the masses.

Report from an International Research Project', p. Therefore, while Old Icelandic literature may have ceased to be an influential force in contemporary belles-lettres,it has continued to be an inspiration for more popular art forms. Other activities which have been similarly influenced include role-playing games and computer games. Popular culture and academia, are the two areas where Old Norse literature has received the most attention in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, a development that is certainly mirrored in the fluctuating fashions of saga translation.

Political concerns, literary fashions and tastes change, and as the translation of sagas went from being generally speaking an amateur enterprise to becoming a professional one, early translations were deemed unsatisfactory and were replaced, a process which could be repeated several times. Egils saga,for instance, has been translated into English a total of 9 ibid.

Einheger, a Norwegian translation of took away to train and an is Icelandic einheyar, actually the plural form of the noun. The vast majority of Norwegian translations of sagas were also carried out within this time frame, and the translation of Old Norse literature into Spanish began only twenty-five years ago. Green in , followed by E. For a descriptive analysis of these translations see S. Fitzroy Dearborn, , pp. Johnsen's aim is to prove by a detailed as am aware, this comparative these sixteenth-century renderings are in Norwegian and not Danish. This text is dealt analysis that with more thoroughly in the next chapter.

Thus while it is perfectly natural that Kennedy should have a preference among the five translations he surveys, we should be aware that the basis for his decision is not objective, but rather reflects his personal bias about how a saga should read within the literary norms of the day. See also John Kennedy, Translating the Sagas: In this functional view of translation, of the translation, a crucial between a source text and a target text is subordinate to the skopos,or purpose any notion of equivalence the target text is intended to fulfill.

Adequacy with regard to skopos then replaces equivalence as which for judging translations'. Routledge, , pp. It is hoped that the investigation here has indicated numerous areas of saga translation where improvement is both possible and necessary, and others where it would be at least desirable' p. Saga, Paratext, Translations' also consists of a comparative analysis of six English language translations. In other words, the interest inspired in the reader by the target text may direct him or her back to the source text, which in this case would entail learning Old Icelandic.

EN-en so, privileged, and translation seen as a 21S. Saga,Paratext, Translations' unpublished doctoral Oxford, Lewin Cambridge Universir; Press, While Kunz, Kennedy and Capildeo adopt a strategy of evaluating saga translations from a diachronic, monolingual point of view, Jon Karl Helgason's publication The Rewriting of Njdls Saga. Translation Politics and the Icelandic Sagas , like 23 my own study, takes a synchronic, cross-cultural approach.

Unlike Kunz, Kennedy, Capildeo, and myself, Helgason does not provide close textual comparisons, focusing instead on the role the translations played in the cultural nationalism of the above-named countries. He builds on the scholarship not only of Translation Studies but also takes into account the work of postcolonial scholars such as Edward Said. Although all belong within the field of Literary Translation Studies, the case- studies discussed above display a variety of quite different approaches in their examinations of saga translations, but what is striking is that in all cases the emphasis is almost exclusively on translations of prose texts, largely ignoring the skaldic stanzas embedded in them apart from Kennedy's examination of one skaldic stanza.

Kunz, for example, focuses entirely on the prose text of Laxda'la saga,summarily dismissing the significance of the skaldic poetry: Laxda1a saga,in which there are only four complete stanzas, this is perhaps comprehensible, but in Egils sagawhich has a total stanzas, the poetry is crucial to an understanding of the saga as a whole.

Although skaldic verse forms part of the prosimetrum of the Icelandic sagas it does of course constitute a genre in itself, the nature of which I described in the previous chapter and, admittedly, an analysis of translations of skaldic poetry requires a different set of criteria to one of prose. The reason why analyses of translations of skaldic poetry have been neglected is to a large extent the traditional lack of interest in this genre in general, which we have discussed at length in chapter 1. Hollander readily acknowledges his disengagement from skaldic poetry which he viewed as an annoying hindrance to his reading of the sagas.

My first acquaintance with Icelandic literature began with an absorbed reading of the sagas translated by William Morris and Magnusson in their Saga Library; and I can very well remember and understand, why I consistently skipped the skaldic verses, which so often and annoyingly broke the smooth flow of those unsurpassed narratives with words that made little sense and added nothing to the story. Now, I have not the least doubt that this impression is shared by most readers of the sagas - the amazing Icelanders excepted.

What is more, alas! In its more typical efforts it is so obscure that justifiable doubts may be entertained whether at the very time it was composed it was readily grasped by persons who did not themselves have a high degree of training in the art; though we may concede as likely that in those simpler times - so infinitely less pulled hither and yon by the insistent distractions and seductions of modern times - that in those times a 27 considerable proportion were so trained. Index and Concordance Leiden: Brill, , p.

In volume 2 of the transcribed text, however, she does include the text of the verses and the chapter headings. Hollander does not consider that the problem might have been Morris's esoteric translations of the poetry. This is a point upon which there is a great deal of consensus among scholars of Old Norse prose and poetry. While these comments refer specifically to the task of the translator, they could be equally well applied to the task of analysing translations.

A comparison of a translation of a skaldic stanza with its source text necessitates a thorough understanding of the workings of skaldic poetry in order to appreciate fully the translator's treatment of it. Prefaces to translations, reviews, and the occasional article make up a reasonably substantial body of work on the subject of how to translate Old Icelandic literature.

Specific references to the translation of skaldic poetry are somewhat more rare, however, and tend to be of the prescriptive variety. Clunies Ross's study grew out of reception theory rather than translation theory, although again her work fits the pattern of a typical descriptive translation study. University of Texas Press, , pp. Percy acknowledged that he had to compromise between providing too much additional information and at the same time preserving some of its more authentic features.

In a letter to his friend William Shenstone he wrote: By not exploiting the palimpsestic quality of Percy's translation, Clunies Ross has missed an opportunity to gain increased insight into the dynamics of the translation process. As I have previously stated, this is an area which I prioritise in my own comparative analysis. Indeed, the scarcity of original sources for Saxo's translations, especially the vernacular sources, has led many scholars to 32Percy's principal sources for this selection of Old Norse Poetry were: L'erma di bretschneider, , p.

Euoco uos ad amara magis certamina Martis. I do not askyou to learn to sport withyounggirls and stroke their tendercheeks,orgive a bride sweetkissesand squeeze her delicatebreasts,drinking bright wine aryou rubyour hand on her smooththigh and castyourglance at her snow-whiteshoulders. I rouseyou, on the contrary, to Marrs bitter contests. Saxo's elaborate expansion of the first two lines followed by his close rendering of the second pair, serves to emphasise the contrast between love-making and war.

It will be clear to the reader by now that comparative analyses of translations of Old Norse literature by no means constitute a new or a rare phenomenon. Egil Eiken Johnsen's study, for instance, used early translations of Heimskringla as evidence in his attempt to prove that there had existed a written form of Norwegian that was distinct from Danish the ' And as early as sixteenth century.

As Old Norse scholars increasingly turn to translation as a locus of cultural enquiry, many, such as Kunz and Helgason, are using recent theories of translation to inform their investigations. In the section that follows I will chart the development of the discipline of Translation Studies, especially with regard to the descriptive approach to literary translation, from its inception in the s to the point in the late s where it begins to converge with Postcolonial Studies and Medieval Studies.

That is not to that there had previously been no translation scholarship. On the contrary, the say translation and the ways of evaluating the quality of translations have been methods of 36This reflects a similar situation in Old Norse prosimetrum. The papers presented at the Louvain conference were collected and published in under the title Literature and Translation and included contributions by scholars now recognized as key specialists in the field.

In this work, Bassnett laments the slowness with which a theory of translation has emerged in Western Europe and the English-speaking world, a situation she attributes to two factors: Routledge, , and lE"estern Translation Theory: From Herodotus to Niettische, ed. New Perspectives Raymond van den Broeck Leuven: The Goal of the Discipline', in Literature and Translation, ed. ACCO, , pp.

Rodopi, , pp. The most important advances in Translation Studies in the twentieth century derive from the groundwork done by groups in Russia in the s and subsequently by the Prague Linguistic Circle and its disciples. Furthermore, the growing acceptance of the theory that language is culturally bound as argued by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis , and therefore incapable of perfectly representing the world, or in this case the original text, clearly carries implications for a translator. While this might be relatively unproblematic for the translation of a modern French novel into another European language, it poses a real challenge to the translator of a medieval text because the translator can only ever have a partial knowledge of the source culture.

Translation and Linguistics is one of four categories into which Bassnett divides the field, the others being: The first two categories examine the historical and cultural context in which a translated text is situated and how it operates in the TL system. Several of the ideas discussed in this ground-breaking work were developed in a in TheManipulation of Literature in Like Bassnett's number of essayspublished 4' Translation Studies, p.

Curiously enough, she only makes a passing mention to Walter Benjamin, whose influential essay 'The Task of the Translator' is still inspiring translation theorists. At the time The Manipulation of Literature was published, it was felt that Translation Studies still occupied a marginal position in the study of literature.

The first translators of the Bible, such as St Jerome, established a model by which the text should be translated with the utmost fidelity, ideally word for word, but as this was obviously not always possible, they constantly strove for equivalence. Equivalence remained the ideal, not just for Biblical translation, but also for translations of other texts. The approaches and principles of this group of scholars were quite distinct, but there is broad agreement among them on certain basic tenets that could be used to establish a new paradigm for the study of translations.

A view of literature as a complex and dynamic system. A conviction that there should be a continual interplay between theoretical models and practical case studies. Groom Helm, , p. An approach to literary translation that is descriptive, target-oriented, functional and systemic.

An interest in the norms and constraints that govern the production and reception of translations. He saw literary translation itself as a system, one element among many in the constant struggle for domination among the polysystem's various layers and subdivisions. According to Even-Zohar's model, literary translations may occupy a central or a peripheral position within the polysystem, and may be either conservative or innovative depending on the polysystem in question.

For example, some translations might bolster certain traditional values in the target culture and would thus be in terms of that culture conservative, but translations are often the source for transferring ideas from one culture to another and can thus be innovative. Even-Zohar's suggestion that a marginal, new, insecure or weakened culture tends to translate more texts than a culture in a state of relative centrality and strength may be one explanation for the genesis of the two translations under examination in this study.

Even before the end of the Franco dictatorship, the statistics regarding book publications indicate a fairly constant growth in translations from the s onwards, but in post Spain the stream began a flood: Roudedge, , pp. Ideally, the process should work both ways, with the theory providing the schema for practical applications and the results of the research informing the theory. Thirdly, the approach based on the systems concept of literature is descriptive rather than prescriptive, which entails accepting the translated text for what it is and trying to determine the various factors that may account for its particular nature.

A researcher following the descriptive method should work without preconceptions of what a translation comprises and the investigation of translational phenomena should start from the empirical fact of the book itself. It tries to account in functional terms for the textual strategies that determine the way a given translation looks, focusing primarily on translational norms and on the various constraints and assumptions that may have influenced the methods of translating that produced the final result.

The descriptive approach also examines the way translations function in the receptor or target literature, and explanations are sought for the impact the translation has on its new environment. From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose.

Once we have acknowledged this, we can begin to analyze the manipulative effect a translation may have on its target culture. In order to provide a broad contextual framework for individual phenomena, the descriptive model advocates going beyond isolated occurrences or texts and taking into consideration larger wholes collective norms, audience expectations, period codes, synchronic and diachronic cross-sections of the literary system or parts of it, interrelations with surrounding literary or non-literary systems, etc. At the same time the goal of the descriptive model is to widen the scope of findings bearing on particular instances in such a way as to include relatively substantial corpora, and thus be able to discover large-scale and long-term patterns and trends.

A books on the subject were published, journals such as Target and number of new iteralurr, 47The. Since , the scope of Literary Translation Studies may have expanded and developed in many different directions, but it is clear that the theoretical framework of these studies is rooted in the conceptual model for case-studies of translation outlined in The Manipulation of Literature. Processes they thought should be addressed and analyzed in any study of literary translations were: In Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, Andre Lefevere again redefined the object of study, viewing translation as one of the many types of rewriting which are crucial in shaping our understanding of other cultures: Translation is, of course, the rewriting of an original text.

All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the undertaken evolution of a literature and a society. Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new devices and the history of translation is the history also of literary genres, new innovation, of the shaping power of one culture upon another.

But rewriting can innovation, distort and contain, and in an age of ever increasing also repress 48Translation,History analCulture,ed. In some cases, however, literature produced by one literary system proves highly incompatible with the poetics of the receiving culture, as Lefevere demonstrates in his discussion of translating gasidahs. The translator is then faced with the dilemma we so often hear repeated by translators of skaldic poetry: According to Lefevere, in the case of the qasidab the translator usually deals with the problem in a number of ways: Maybe because allusions point to the final, real aporia of translation, the real untranslatable, which does not reside in syntactic transfers or semantic constructions, but rather in the peculiar way in which all cultures develop their own "shorthand", which is what allusions really are.

A word or phrase can evoke a situation that is symbolic for an emotion or a state of affairs. The translator can render the word or phrase and the corresponding state of affairs without much trouble. The link between the two, which is so intricately bound up with the foreign culture in itself, is much harder to translate. Routledge, , p. We have looked at some of the issues underlying Sigurc ur already Nordal's edition of Egils sagain chapter 1; and in the following chapter we will examine Hallvard Lie's Norwegian translation in the context of historiography, Norwegian literary history, and anthologies of Norwegian literature.

One omission from Lefevere's book, which seems so obvious as to make one wonder whether he was deliberately avoiding the issue, is any mention of postcolonialism.

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It is not until , with the publication of Constructing Cultures: Essays in Literary Translation, that Bassnett and Lefevere make explicit reference to Postcolonial Translation Studies, even though they had certainly been aware earlier of work being done in the field. For example, Rethinking Translation: Discourse,Subjectivity,Ideology,a collection of essays edited by Lawrence Venuti and published in , was enthusiastically endorsed by Bassnett. It is a marvellous achievement, a first-class piece of editing'. Sarnia Mehrez's essay uses as a starting point the autobiographical statement George Steiner makes in After Babel about his plurilingual experience, contrasting it with a similar statement by the Moroccan poet Abdelkebir Khatibi in order to highlight the limitations of translation theory that developed only within a European humanist tradition.

These began to surface on a larger scale only when the anti-colonial [my emphasis] struggle in Angola and Mozambique began to be in W iite liberal newspapers and on the evening news with some regularity'. Ideology', Subjectivitj-, Di5trourre, ed. However, it is worth mentioning at this point that while Mehrez and Jacquemond might be correct in their assertion that translation theory at the time they were writing assumed an egalitarian relationship between cultures, this is not reflected in European history.

European nations did not only conquer and colonize the Americas, India, and Africa; they also colonised each other. Indeed many European nations have had experience both as coloniser and colonised at different points in their history.