An Essay on Archaeology

It has helped us to understand big topics like ancient Egyptian religion, the origins of agriculture in the Near East, colonial life in Jamestown Virginia, the lives of enslaved Africans in North America, and early Mediterranean trade routes. In addition archaeology today can inform us about the lives of individuals, families and communities that might otherwise remain invisible. Prehistoric archaeology focuses on past cultures that did not have written language and therefore relies primarily on excavation or data recovery to reveal cultural evidence.

Historical archaeology is the study of cultures that existed and may still during the period of recorded history--several thousands of years in parts of the Old World, but only several hundred years in the Americas. Within historical archaeology there are related fields of study that include classical archaeology, which generally focuses on ancient Greece and Rome and is often more closely related to the field of art history than to anthropology, and biblical archaeology, which seeks evidence and explanation for events described in the Bible and therefore is focused primarily on the Middle East.

Underwater archaeology studies physical remains of human activity that lie beneath the surface of oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. It includes maritime archaeology—the study of shipwrecks in order to understand the construction and operation of watercraft—as well as cities and harbors that are now submerged, and dwellings, agricultural, and industrial sites along rives, bays and lakes. Some of the other specialties within archaeology include urban archaeology, industrial archaeology, and bioarchaeology. An archaeological site is any place where physical remains of past human activities exist.

There are many, many types of archaeological sites. Prehistoric archaeological sites include permanent Native American villages or cities, stone quarries from which raw materials were obtained, rock art petrogylphs and pictographs, cemeteries, temporary campsites, and megalithic stone monuments. A site can be as small as a pile of chipped stone tools left by a prehistoric hunter who paused to sharpen a spear point, or as large and complex as the prehistoric settlements of Chaco Canyon in the American southwest, or Stonehenge in England.

Historical archaeology sites can be found in areas as densely populated as New York City, or far below the surface of a river, or sea. The wide variety of historical archaeological sites studied include shipwrecks, battlefields and other military sites, slave quarters, plantations, cemeteries, mills, and factories. Even the smallest archaeological site may contain a wealth of important information. Artifacts are objects made or used by people that are analyzed by archaeologists to obtain information about the peoples who made and used them.

Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds," [81] has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience.

Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists.

This generalization has been with western culture for a long time. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is that archaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the general public is under the impression that excavations are undertaken for money and not historical data. The majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation". The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinema but they do form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted".

The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations , and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as " pseudoarchaeology ". Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology , and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns.

Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists. One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology.

Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.

Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project [87] integrated a one-hour HD documentary, [88] short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in and , live underwater video of the Queen Anne's Revenge Shipwreck Project was webcast to the Internet as a part of the QAR DiveLive [89] educational program that reached thousands of children around the world.

In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project.

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do. Archaeological Legacy Institute ALI , is a registered [c] [3] non-profit, media and education corporation registered in Oregon in ALI founded a website, The Archaeology Channel to support the organization's mission "to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage, by using media in the most efficient and effective ways possible.

Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work discussed above , as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism. His book, Chariots of the Gods? Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

Looting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage.

Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.

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Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals. In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them.

For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act NAGPRA, , which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains.

Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism , some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space.

To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds.

There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred on 21 June , when community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near Maniwaki, Quebec , to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods—some dating back 6, years.

It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area. The remains and artifacts, including jewelry , tools and weapons , were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley , including Morrison and the Allumette Islands.

They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization 's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.

An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement. Kennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The study of the past through material culture.

Archaeology

For other uses, see Archaeology disambiguation. For the magazine, see The Archaeologist. For the silent film, see The Archeologist. Archaeological Biological Cultural Linguistic Social.

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Actor—network theory Alliance theory Cross-cultural studies Cultural materialism Culture theory Diffusionism Feminism Historical particularism Boasian anthropology Functionalism Interpretive Performance studies Political economy Practice theory Structuralism Post-structuralism Systems theory. Anthropologists by nationality Anthropology by year Bibliography Journals List of indigenous peoples Organizations. History of Chinese archaeology.

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University of New Mexico Press Kris 9 February , "The History of Archaeology: The Parkers of Heytesbury: The father of scientific archaeology. Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum. State University of New York at Binghamton. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences , Oxford University Press Ascher, R. Smithsonian Institution Press Binford, L.

Writing Guide in Archaeology

A Debate in American archaeology", Scientific American , 2 , pp. A Parable for the Archaeology of the s", American Anthropologist , 84 2 , pp. University of Massachusetts Press Glascock, M. The Geomorphologist and Archaeology", American Antiquity , 42 4 , pp. The Human Challenge 13th ed. A Yuman Case Study , Salinas: Cambridge University Press Hodder, I.

Academic Press Hodder, I. Routeldge Kuznar, L, ed. International Monographs in Prehistory Miller, D. An Introduction", in Miller, D. An Emerging Paradigm", Anthropological Theory , 1 , pp.

An archeologist: features of profession

Theories, Methods, and Practice , London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. A New Outlook", American Antiquity , 38 3 , pp. The statue was found in by a Greek peasant on his field, Milos Island. Hands of the statue were not found. The Venus de Milo statue became the most well-known and recognized symbol of beauty of antique art; nowadays, it is situated in the Louvre, Paris. It is located near Angkor Thom - an ancient capital of nationality Khmers on north of the country. French traveler Henri Mouhot discovered this memorial on January 2, Afterwards, the whole epoch in history of Cambodia was named after Angkor Wat.

Towers of Angkor have turned into the symbol of Cambodia and now, they decorate a national flag. Troy is an ancient town on the northwest of peninsula Asia Minor Turkey near the channel Dardanelles. The town was discovered in the s by German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann, who had initiated excavations in the district of Hisarlik Hill. As a result of excavations, there had been discovered 46 cultural layers, which were divided into several periods - from Troy I to Troy IX. Troy I dates back to - BC; it is the most old time period of Troy.

Mycenae is an age-old town in Argos southern Greece , large center of Aegean culture. It was destroyed approximately in BC. During excavations, in - , organized by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, pit tombs were found. These tombs contained treasures: Outside the town, archaeologists found nine domical tombs and a great number of chamber tombs. This civilization was discovered by English archaeologist Arthur Evans and named after a legendary king Minos.

In consequence of excavations, - the s, there were discovered urban buildings, palatial constructions, and necropolises.

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Rooms of Knossos palace were decorated with rich murals. Also, Arthur Evans created periodization of the Minoan civilization having divided it into early, middle, and late periods. Machu Picchu is a fortress of the Incas, town-sanctuary in Peru, prehistoric monument aslope the mountain in Urubamba. The fortress was founded in and existed until Picturesque ruins of Machu Picchu are the best example of stone building of the late Incan period.

The memorial includes buildings and separate constructions, the complex of temples, private premises, and defensive walls from block stones. The mummy itself is buried in three sarcophagi placed inside each other, one of which is made of gold. Around the mummified body, there were gold cultic objects.

The most recognizable treasure from Tutankhamun's burial chamber is a burial mask of the king. The main part of treasures is exhibited in Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Every of these topics can be considered when working on archaeology thesis paper.