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Shchedrin and others in their everyday ways and habits, but the back- Kornilova , 4. Some of the works were merely drawings of as the Basilica of San Vitale, and his later albums ancient churches, like one depicting the Church of architectural drawings contain depictions of in Old Manglis built in Bertash , This brought a spectacular album of drawings He spent two years studying at the Collegium to life: Le Caucase pittoresque, first published Tolomei in Siena Kornilova , 4 , then the in his native French Gagarin Being eth- Gagarins moved to Paris, where Grigory was en- nographically accurate, each drawing renders listed to the Page Corp and listened to lectures a dramatic, almost theatrical energy, capturing on architecture, construction, mathematics and the life of Caucasian peoples in the scenic deco- philosophy.

In , he took a two-year journey ration of their ancient architectural masterpiec- across Europe, drawing albums in hand, where es and romantic natural landscapes figs. In , the Gaga- On his second stay in Georgia, , rins returned to Russia, where Grigory was soon this time vested by the government with official hailed as a skilful graphic artist with famous capacities in Fine Arts affairs in the Caucasus men of letters among his acquaintances: He reinforced the old frescoes with paints request of Pushkin, he made several drawings he had brought specifically from Europe and to accompany his poems, including Ruslan and made new ones in Russian-Byzantine style Dol- Ludmila and The Queen of Spades , The commander-in-chief and 26 Foletti, Rakitin.

Le Caucase Figure 9. In the sixteenth century, Italians added new gave Gagarin a right to design and build church- features.

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Gagarin concludes his apology to Byz- es for Russian soldiers spread throughout the antine art in this way: Unlike his con- in our art. It is obvious that, in order to obtain temporaries, who had little immediate contact an accurate and exhaustive understanding with Byzantine art, he knew Ravenna, Rome and about Russian art, it is not sufficient to exam- especially Constantinople perfectly.

His expe- ine only the three aforementioned stages. After years of monuments which caused the emergence of work and research, by , he collected enough our art. It is only studying the originals that sights and artefacts of Caucasian art to summa- one can understand and correct the copies. In it, he explains the ways of Gagarin was 15 years old when Nicholas I came to Byzantine art with regard to Russian history, as the throne in Russia This czar, a few it came to Russia in the tenth century, mingled years later, decreed that the style — conceived, with the art of the Arabs, penetrated into Persia, in , by Konstantin Thon for the Cathedral then India and then back to Russia with the Mon- of Christ the Saviour in Moscow and defined as gols in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Russian-Byzantine style fig.

Konstantin Thon, Cathedral of Christ Saviour. Gagarin adhered to the Observing these developments in Russian art, vision promoted by the Monarch: The 18th century had crashed ideas about art, just like many other ideas, all over Europe. The national style cannot be invented; it is Having destroyed tradition in religion and in being created by the tradition and habits of the noblest beliefs of man, the 18th century people. The style which we have clung to for had ruined the tradition in arts, replacing it a century and a half, just like the one which everywhere with gaudy imitations of Roman has been brought to us very recently, is not art, the passion for which brewed in French our national style; but it is this style that has republicans for the same reason they dressed encouraged Russia for eight centuries that themselves up like Catilines and Brutes.

His conclusion is absolutely univocal in this re- gard: While the concept of Byzantinism in Rus- samples of Byzantine painting and Ancient sia was still very vague in the ss, Gagarin Greece sculpture. In the same text as among Slavs and Greeks who preserved Or- from , we read: Byzantine art was considered architecture as well as splendid and curious to be decadent by most artists and intellectu- remnants of painting. Fifty years later, however, it would be exactly with the same tools that a Gagarin was so passionate about Byzantine lega- school for the painting of icons, which were then cy as a universal aesthetic solution that he went considered true national heritage, was found- so far as to propose it as a mainstream artistic ed by Kondakov, with the support of Nicholas II program at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts himself Kondakov ; Foletti There is little doubt time.

The reception of his ideas was very prob- that Metropolitan Bolkhovitinov, the historian lematic in Russia, but deep down, it preceded Ioseliani, Metropolitan Filaret and the artist and by far what would become one of the dominant Count Grigory Gagarin truly believed in a sacred traits of self-perception for the country, not only authority of the past glories of the Empires. The for the Russia of the last Romanovs, but also for cosmopolitan and Russian count, on the other the Stalinian years and even for the Russia of hand, sees Georgian antiquities as proof of it Putin.

Actually, for him, the Caucasus is the place where Byzantium and Russia overlap in some way. In his monu- 4 Conclusion mental album of illustrations, he puts forward a series of monuments that show a clear conti- nuity going from Constantinople and Ravenna, In , Alexander I promised — while incorpo- through Georgia to Moscow. Notably, this idea, rating Georgia into the Russian empire — true certainly in sync with the imperial decree, liberty for the country, while presenting it as a was not favoured by most of the Russian elite cultural stronghold.

The reality was quite dif- in the s, still too attached to a perspective ferent: In the not Westernist, tastes. When Kondakov claimed s, Ioseliani and Gagarin — a Georgian cler- the pre-eminence of Byzantine art in the histo- ic and a Russian count — present us with how, ry of Russian art towards the of the nineteenth after two generations, the country had really century, he continued to elaborate on the same integrated into the empire. Orthodoxy — which strategy, without which the annexation of Geor- became one of the three key words for autarchic gia would look like occupation or colonization, power under Nicholas I: Autocracy, Orthodoxy but with which this small country can be per- and Nation — is perceived as a place of cohesion ceived as a crossroads of two mighty powers, from both points of view.

The Georgian intellec- or as a double province, squeezed between the tual justified the union with a theological situa- all-powerful and real Russia and the elusive but tion: Mitropolit Evgenij [Bolhovitinov] i nekotorye Sankt-Peterburg: Ezhegodnaja go korpusa vnutrennej strazh, Pravoslavnyj Svjato-Tihonovskij Gagarina v kontekste razvitija russkogo i vi- gumanitarnyj universitet, Iz istorii voro- konferencii, posvjashhennoj letiju so dn- nezhskogo kraja: K dvuhsotletiju voronezh- ja rozhdenija vice-prezidenta Imperatorskoj skogo kraevedenija: Akademii hudozhestv knjazja G.

Gagarina, Centr duhovnogo vozrozhdenija Chernozem- nojabrja g. Istoricheskoe izo- the iconization of monumental crosses in me- brazhenie Gruzii v politicheskom, cerkovnom Foletti, Rakitin. Sochineno v Alek- Filaret, Mitropolit Moskovskij Institut russkoj civ- druzheskih pisem k V I. Mamontova i Florovskij, Georgij [] Puti russkogo Ko, Pravo- Foletti, Ivan Materialy dlja novoj istorii Foletti, Ivan From Byzantium to the Holy Kavkaza, s po god.

Nikodim Kondakov and the terburg: Tipografija Imperatorskoj akademii Invention of the Icon. Vospominani- Avec une introd. K letiju so dnja rozhdenija Gagarin, Grigorij Tipo- ja tablica v posobie istorii vizantijskogo iskusstva. Tipografija Kanceljarii namestnika kavk. Pravo- Gagarin, Grigorij Sbornik vizantijskih i slavnaja jenciklopedija, Tom II. Imperial Policies and Moskva: Perspectives Towards Georgia, St. Berkeley; Los Ages, University of California Press. Filaret, Mitropolit Moskovskij Razgovory Ioseliani, Platon Kratkaja istorija gruz- mezhdu ispytujushhim i uverennym o pravo- inskoj cerkvi.

Sochinenie chlena korrespondenta Zaka- Patriarshim Prestolam. Zhurnal Filaret, mitropolit Moskovskij Hristian- Ministerstva vnutrennih del. O russkom nostjah vernopoddannyh: Panteleimo- Ivancov-Platonov, Aleksandr Religiozno-filosofskaja bib- jashhennogo pomazanija na carstvo blagoch- lioteka. Gagarin — vice- dra Pavlovicha, g. Pravoslavnyj Grigorij Gagarin hudozhnik i obshhestvennyj de- Svjato-Troickij bogoslovskij institute. Gagarina, nojabrja g. Saint Orbeli, Rusudana [] Gruzin- Kondakov, Nikodim P.

Sovremennoe skie rukopisi Instituta vostokovedenija.

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Sbornik materialov dlja is- dumy. Mosk- Russkie pisateli-bogoslovy Peterburgskij peri- na Moskovskoj kafedre po ego propovedjam, od zhizni mitropolita Filareta g. Tipografija Suny, Ronald Grigor The Making of the Gubernskago pravlenija. Vostokovedeniye v rossiyskih Indiana University Press. Istoricheskij vestnik, 83 3 , A Modern History Tom 3.

Istorija otkrytija i Leonov, Aleksej Per- izuchenija russkoj srednevekovoj zhivopisi, XIX vaja polovina devjatnadcatogo veka: Zakony i pos- Iskusstvo. Pra- , Tom After describing the circumstances that may have led the new generation of Georgian scholars to a systematic exploration of ancient remains in the Caucasus and medieval ecclesiastical monuments and treasuries, the paper will focus on the main archaeologists of Christian antiquity in Georgia, Dimitri Bakradze and Ekvtime Taqaishvili.

Finally, the study outlines the creation of what has been called the Georgian National Treasure. The thirty-nine boxes, containing manuscripts, icons, precious liturgical vessels and other priceless items, were sent from Batumi to Marseille, via Istanbul, and stored in France until , when Ekvtime Taqaishvili, who had taken care of and protected them over those 24 years, accompanied them back to Tbilisi. Dimitri Bakradze and Ekvtime Taqaishvili.

Collections of Byzantine Art. Historiography of Art History. The dramatic exile of the Treasure Schnirelmann ; Olin There, on the other hand, the event is pretation in terms of their cultural heritage. Starting in , the numer- flourishing of national histories in the period of ous Georgian monarchies, divided since the I would like to express my gratitude to the Swiss National Fund for giving me the opportunity to conduct my research in Georgia, under the auspices of the program Early Post-doc Mobility. I would also like to thank Prof.

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Zaza Skhirtladze for his warm and hospitable welcome in Tbilisi and his constant willingness to help me with my research, Prof. Oliver Reisner for the fruitful discussions and his valuable insights on the problems of cultural heritage in the Caucasus, and Papuna Chivadze for his assistance with Georgian references. Medieval and Modern past has thus been in per- During the nineteenth century, more specialized petual dialogue with Russia, in tension between approaches towards Caucasian culture arose and integration into and emancipation from the his- were mainly in search of the classical antiquities torical discourse of the powerful empire.

But as Alain outline its roots and the main factors favourable Schnapp and Lori Khatchadourian point out, the to putting this interest into action. New territorial gains in the Cauca- and the most iconic and valuable ecclesiastical sian region in the s and the consolidation artefacts were created. Finally, we will outline ly the Georgian Military Road, linking Russia the efforts for systematic preservation of these to the South Caucasus, running from Vladika- objects and their musealization in the Tbilisi vkaz through the Darial Gorge to Tbilisi.

The Church Museum, founded in and open until construction works hastened the archaeolog- , when the most precious artefacts from the ical discoveries, which were soon followed by Museum and other collections were expatriated scientific interest and supervised excavations to France. An overview of the dramatic destiny Khatchadourian , After the first or- of this collection will then conclude this short ganized archaeological finds in Mtskheta, the study on an important part of the Georgian quest ancient capital of Iberia and Kartli and the most for national identity.

As a result, the Caucasus Ar- chaeological Committee was founded in Tbilisi 2 Discovering the Southern Caucasus in and soon merged with the Society of the Amateurs of Caucasian Archaeology, established The earliest modern accounts of travel to the in Tbilisi in Gamqrelidze , Caucasus, starting in the seventeenth century, The city of Tbilisi, at that time, was a real were mainly focused on describing the unfamil- multicultural hub, with three dominant social iar dramatic mountainous landscapes and the and ethnic communities: It was the centre of the imperial Baye , who was faced with an inter- administration of Transcaucasia, was also the diction during his first voyage to the Caucasus centre of trade and, what is more important, in Because it was impossible to carry out the cultural centre of the whole Caucasus cf.

Various scientific societies to the ethnography of the Caucasus, and became and institutions were founded during the second one the most important specialists in this field half of the nineteenth century, and a number cf. This mirrored the general situation of the the greatest interest in the material testimonies science of archaeology because, by that time, of a glorious Caucasian past came from Russia. In September , the Society even before the institutionalization of such in- of Amateurs of Caucasian Archaeology organ- terest, private collectors from the highest ranks ized the Fifth Archaeological Congress of the of Russian society in Moscow and Saint Peters- Imperial Archaeological Commission in Tbilisi.

The congress spurred tion Sergei Grigorevich Stroganov President of further research into the archaeology of the the Society of History and Antiquities of Rus- Caucasus, financed by the Russian Empire. The number Chantre, then deputy director of the Lyon Mu- of collectors of medieval antiquities in Russia seum, who wanted to bring together as many grew so fast that, in the middle of the nineteenth objects as possible from important excavation century, there were more than one hundred pri- sites like Koban, Samtavro, Redkin-Lager and vate collections in Russia Khrushkova , Stepantsminda.

In fact, the French scholar, at- ; Moretti During the second half of tempting to draw parallels with central Europe- the century, this number grew even more. Bediashvili, Bodet , ; heti and Imereti to the Russian empire at the Sagona , 7. As a consequence, the Russian beginning of the nineteenth century. Clergymen were provided with a dox Church to the Holy Synod of the Russian salary, but only a limited number of designated Orthodox Church that caused the pillage of nu- figures, appearing in a special list, signed by merous ecclesiastical treasuries and their sub- the governing body of the Church, were actual- sequent sale to private collectors.

Even though ly paid cf. Moreover, wasting its property, suppressing the language beginning with Teophilact Rusanov from Saint and then returning to Russia with stolen goods Petersburg and lasting until the res- and money Durnovo , Probably the toration of autocephaly in , all the exarchs in most well-known robbery happened in , Georgia were ethnic Russians, with very little or when this exarch acted as an accomplice to gov- no knowledge of Georgian language and culture ernor-general Levashov of Kutaisi, who stole the Grdzelidze, George, Vischer , In collaboration with the exarch, dency to legitimize the Slav typikon in Church the governor commissioned a Russian artist, a services and to eschew the old Georgian hymns certain Vasilyev, to design a new triptych, while spread to the countryside as well Grdzelidze, another artist, the goldsmith Pavel Sazikov, was George, Vischer , A letter from the appointed to execute the metal chasing in im- Russian imperial court, written in and ad- itation of the original.

Levashov then sold the dressed to the viceroy of Georgia, Grand Duke original Kahkuli icon to the famous Russian col- Mikhail Nikolayevich, states: Physical conquest will not endure of Gelati Amiranashvili , 4; Amiranashvili without a spiritual victory. Such victory is indeed , Finally, in order to obtain total subjection During his incumbency, icons from the Sioni ca- of the Georgian clergy, a decision was made to thedral and the monasteries of Mtskheta, Alaver- confiscate all church land.

In Eastern Georgia, di, Bodbe, Jumati and others were robbed of their the state seizure of church lands was permitted precious stones Bubulashvili , Feigning a desire to All movable and immovable property of the restore the old cover, he had it removed, fixed a Georgian church entered into the possession of cheap silver reproduction by Sazikov in its place, the Imperial Treasury. With the approval of the an ordinary serviceman of state cf. Khakhuli Triptych, 10thth century. Treasury of Georgian Museum of Arts. Buckton , removed medieval the local monasteries in order to prevent further icons from churches and monasteries in Western thefts and losses Lazarev , The project Georgia Jumati, Khobi, Martvili and Shemok- was carried out by Kondakov himself, with the medi again under the pretext of wanting to re- assistance of the late Georgian historian and ar- store them, and had them replaced with cheap chaeologist Dimitri Bakradze, without any doubt silver copies Amiranashvili , 4; Lazarev the leading figure in Georgian archaeological , 13; Pokrovskij , 5.

The icons obviously scholarship in the ss. The volume, never returned to the monasteries, and ended named The Description of the Ancient Artifacts up in various private collections. For instance, in some Sanctuaries of Georgia, was published an icon of the Archangel Michael from Juma- a year after the discovery, in , in Saint Pe- ti, from the twelfth century, made its way into tersburg Kondakov As the title suggests, the collection of Alexej Bobrinskoy fig. The this short text of about pages, without intro- count was very happy with his acquisition but, duction or conclusion, provides the basic infor- not knowing the origin of the icon, he boasted mation about the precious items gold, silver and about it to the prominent Russian art historian enamel preserved in the churches and monastic and Byzantinist Nikodim Kondakov Foletti , treasuries in various Georgian regions.

The latter immediately recognized it as a with Gelati, the richest monastery, which was precious Georgian revetment, and even identi- founded in by King Davit the Builder, the fied it with one of his photographs from when publication then takes the structure of present- the icon was still in the monastery of Jumati. Icon of Archangel Michael, twelfth century. His life and of tsar Alexander III , imperial policy activities illustrate the general situation of the was marked by a greater centralization, russi- nascent Georgian intelligentsia of that period in fication of the Empire, of which the Southern a remarkable way.

Caucasus was now an integral part. Moreover, He was born in the village of Khashmi, in under the new tsar, the region was no longer gov- the Kakheti region, as the son of a local priest. The even stating that the ideas for the best art pro- seminary in Tbilisi, at that time, was the high- duced in Georgia came from Constantinople.

During their studies abroad, objects. As a consequence, a return to the traditional way of life was no longer possible for them Reisner 4 Georgian Archaeology: Dimitri , ; cf. After Bakradze and Ekvtime Taqaishvili coming home, they engaged in a movement for national enlightenment, as well as in an attempt This inevitably leads us to wonder whether the to modernize their fatherland, where a simple point of view of Georgian scholars was different rural life was predominant and where, except from the Russian.

In the initial part of this paper, for a few nobles and clerics, people had little or we mentioned that, during the last third of the no sense of their own nationhood cf. Suny , nineteenth century, archaeology — in the broad- ; cf. As a modern national cul- materials is rather limited in comparison with ture, this was to integrate the different regions Russian and even Western scholars involved in and social classes into a standardized culture the research of Caucasian antiquities.

This was done with a flourishing literary production in the Georgian language, which was first restricted and then totally ex- cluded from state school curricula, and also by founding numerous cultural societies, starting in the s. The most important of these, a re- al key organization for the national movement, the Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians6 was founded in and organized mainly by Ilia Chavchavadze, Dimitri Kipiani and Iakob Gogebashvili Gabisonia , Although the Georgian language continued to be repressed, the Society, entirely dependent on membership fees, was successful in opening nu- merous elementary schools and libraries on the Georgian mainland, and in places with a consid- erable presence of ethnic Georgians Vladikav- kaz or Baku Reisner , After his return to Georgia in , Dimitri Bakradze held several teaching and official positions across the country.

In , he per- manently settled in Tbilisi, where he energeti- cally engaged in public and scholarly activities, mainly in the domain of archaeology and history. He was present for the foundation of the pre- viously mentioned Society of Amateurs of Cau- casian Archaeology, which helped organize the large archaeological congress in Tbilisi.

Dimitri Bakradze , date unknown. Born gia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey,11 we must in the Kutaisi region to a noble family in , not forget that the Society was not preoccupied he graduated from Saint Petersburg University only with antique and medieval monuments in in , in history and Classical philology. From Georgia, but the whole Caucasus region, as was to , he lectured in history, geography, Bakradze himself.

He was a member of alphabetical order and the book is written in the Saint Petersburg and Moscow archaeolog- Russian. As indicated, eracy among Georgians. From to , he Bakradze did not have a specifically art histor- chaired the Society of History and Ethnography ical or archaeological education, he was mainly of Georgia, which he founded together with a cir- a theologian and historian. In , he joined cle of scholars and amateurs in Georgian histo- Dimitri Kipiani and Ilia Chavchavadze in the es- ry, literature and folklore. It was the first purely tablishment of the Society for the Spreading of Georgian scientific society established after the Literacy among Georgians and actively partic- First State Duma legalized the establishment of ipated in its activities cf.

In national scientific societies Reisner , Nevertheless, the University in Tbilisi. After its solemn open- despite his enormous efforts to organize scien- ing in February , he became one of its first tific and cultural life in Georgia, despite his pub- professors. Schnirelmann ; for Armenian historiography od medieval architecture see Maranci More recent books and articles about the scholar are almost exclusively in the Georgian language.

Ekvtime Taqaishvili Figure 5. Even though some of his ma- of Christianity in Georgia. Gam- qrelidze , The volumes have been integrated in a recent project led by Roin Metreveli, publishing the most important works of Taqaishvili in the Georgian language in a twelve-volume collection. The first four volumes have already been published.

Group photo of Ekvtime Taqaishvili in the middle and his colleagues at Jvari, date unknown. In this way, the newly-described Georgian affairs, Taqaishvili himself was deeply involved medieval monuments confirmed a much vaster in politics: Between and , he was even to become the first Georgian nation-state, the elected to the post of Deputy Chairman in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, established in Constituent Assembly of the new republic. But years before that, the borders of in one generation of scholars, the political situ- an autonomous and independent Georgia were ation in the Caucasus changed radically: Rayfield made it an instrument of the national question, , Nevertheless, no historical argu- for which he is remembered even today.

Finally, 5 Georgian National Treasure in the fragile context of the ending World War and of negotiations for the new division of power, What was nevertheless common to both of these on 4 June , the new Georgian government big names in Georgian archaeology was the de- signed almost all Southwest Georgia away to sire not only to describe and study the ancient Turkey, in exchange for recognition of their in- monuments of Georgia, but above all, to protect dependent statehood cf.

In order to save old Georgian manu- lidze , One of the aims of the Society of scripts, icons, reliquaries and liturgical vessels Amateurs of Caucasian Archaeology was thus left in abandoned churches and monasteries, not only to collect, but also to purchase valuable there had been a proposal, as early as the s, antiquities all over the Caucasus.

Finally, the Society for the Spreading of Liter- The initiator of the project was none other than acy among Georgians also engaged in collecting Dimitri Bakradze. In , he appealed for sup- old documents, manuscripts and valuable books port from the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Al- from all over Georgia, though it did not have an though he gained the support of the Academy, appropriate space for the growing collection. It the museum saw the light of day only over ten was stored at the offices of the Society before years later, in , because, according to Eldar being moved, in August , to three rooms Bubulashvili, the Russian exarchs opposed its in the newly built Gymnasium for Nobility, a establishment Bubulashvili , Reisner , , Taqaishvili such an initiative.

On the erature, science, and culture of the Georgian initiative of the German explorer Gustav Rad- nation have been lost, so the Georgian nation de, this museum converted into a more broadly must preserve this treasure. The board is focused Caucasus Museum in It the most precious objects that had been collect- mainly preserved numismatic materials, weap- ed and cared for since half a century. Although ons, armour, jewellery and other archaeological a lot of antique and medieval precious objects items discovered during the numerous excava- were transferred and kept safe in the Church tions.

But officially-led excavations were not the Museum of the Sioni Cathedral, in the Caucasus only way to discover treasures from the past. For the basic information see Gamqrelidze , Chkhitunidze , 52; Reisner , Golden plate from the Akhalgori Treasure, 5th century BC. Archaeological Treasury of the Georgian National Museum. The government was justi- eval art — but he was refused, again and again fiably afraid that the Russians would steal or Amiranashvili , And that is why abolished Lang , The treasure passed the government decided that the collections of into the possession of the French state and the most precious historic, archaeological, artis- Pierre Jaudon was appointed as its curator.

Sub- tic and ecclesiastical objects had to be exiled as sequently, this precious cargo was transferred well. The treasure had a tremendous value. In from Marseille to a bank depository in Paris, addition to the chosen, most valuable objects, in- and Taqaishvili lost access to it. They have no hundred paintings from the National Gallery owner. Even if I had access to them physically for instance, paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn I would not be able to work, I got old, my leg and Lucas Cranach , treasure from the Dadiani hurts and I can hardly walk.

I am very worried Palace in Zugdidi, treasure from Tbilisi Palace, about the future of this treasure because who property from Russian churches, property from else but you know how much energy I had put the Borjomi Palace with its rich libraries , etc. All the several hundreds of objects were cit. He urged the French there placed in a bank depository. Although the government to hand the collections back to treasure was officially the property of the Geor- Georgia, especially after he learned that, as ear- gian government-in-exile, it was actually Ekv- ly as in , the Soviet government had started time Taqaishvili who was appointed to accom- to return many precious objects that had been pany and supervise this huge collection.

Despite stolen during imperial rule, back to Georgia. In November himself, the scholar never sold a single piece of , Taqaishvili met with the Ambassador of the the priceless collection. What is more, Taqaish- Soviet Union in France, Alexander Bogomolov, vili even consistently denied scholars access to and asked for his assistance in this undertaking. Collection stamp issued at the occasion of the th Figure 9. During his visit, held between 2 and 10 December , Today, the items from the treasure remain re- an agreement on the question of the treasure distributed between the heirs of the above-men- was reached between the two statesmen, and tioned institutions, in different collections of the the repatriation was subsequently organized.

This situation January but had to wait there for several weeks, persists in spite of the fact that ever since the because the war was still on and it was not safe declaration of independence of Georgia in , to fly over Europe. The same 39 boxes that had all ecclesiastic property, movable and immov- left Georgia twenty-four years earlier finally able, was given back to the Orthodox Church returned to Tbilisi — through Rome, Cairo and of Georgia cf.

Papulasvhili , Serrano , Tehran — together with Ekvtime Taqaishvili, on The status of the items thus, especially 12 April Amiranashvili , 17; Metrev- the ecclesiastic artefacts that now compose the eli , It is the investigation of the being redistributed to the Academy of Sciences historiography of these precious objects that and its manuscript department, the Georgian helps us to understand the complicated rela- Museum and the Georgian National Art Museum tionship between national and religious identity Amiranashvili , Zeda- ment of national-liberation movement against nia On ter the process of the secularisation and nation- the contrary, hand in hand with the collapse of alisation of religious heritage and, at the same the Soviet Union, the Georgian Orthodox Church time, the sanctification of national heroes than progressively gained a very strong position with- the history of the Georgian National Treasure in Georgian society, to such an extent that the figs.

Bibliography Amiranashvili, Shalva Turkish Academy of The Icon of Khakhuli. Sciences Journal of Archaeology, 13, Amiranashvili, Shalva [] Sakart- Braund, David A His- velodan skhvadaskhva dros gatanili samuzeu- tory of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, mo gandzeuloba da misi dabruneba Georgian B.

Heretics and Colo- in Different Times. Kavkaz v drevnikh pa- Caucasus. Grdzelidze, George, Vi- Bakradze, Dimitri Arkheologicheskoe scher , Routledge, Bakradze, Dimitri Canard du Caucase, 2 11 , Georgian Arts Cracraft, James Cambridge MA ; London: Harvard Bedianashvili, Giorgi; Bodet, Catherine The scholar is depicted as a national hero and a saint also in the recent Georgian movie Ekvtime: Georgian Technical Dumbadze, M.

Istorikosi dimitri bakradze University, Traditions of Classical Durnovo, Nikoloz Ameri- The Fates of the Georgian Church. Kondakov, Nikodim Pavlovich From Byzantium to Holy Rus- jatnikov drevnosti v nektorich chramach Gruzii sia.

Russkaya nauka ob an- Laloy, Jean Slaves, 54 , Identity Stud- Manning, Paul History and Archaeology of Ancient Georgia. Georgian National Museum, The Myth of Nations: Princeton; menian Studies 3. A History of the Orthodox Church of vili. Epigrafika vostoka, 13, Georgia to the Present.

London, Bennett Metreveli, Roin National Hewitt, George Il erature of Travel and Exploration, vol. Hobsbawm, Eric; Ranger, Terence Cambridge Olin, Margaret The Late University Press. National Identity in Histor- Years , , , and , vol. Lon- ical Perspective, Austrian Studies. Editions de la Maison des litical change in the Caucasus. Enciclo- Suny, Ronald Grigor The Making of the pedia teologica, vol. Arkheologich- Rapp, Stephen H. Studies in Medieval eskie ekskursii razyskanija i zametki Archaeo- Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and logical Excursions. Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium ; Taqaishvili, Ekvtime Die Schule der georgi- Arkheologicheskaja Reisner, Oliver Identity Studies, Provinces of Georgia in Sharadze, Guram counters with Russian and European Universi- ed.

Edited by Roin Metreveli. Anthropological Researches, 2, lisi: Rewriting Caucasian Rayfield, Donald The Value of the Texts and the Armenian Adaptation. National Museum of Ethnology. Tonini, Maria Lucia a cura di Il Collezio- Sagona, Antonio Cambridge University febbraio Semyonova, Natalya; Iljine, Nicolas eds. Armenian cartography and historiograph- ical geography. Sur cette question, voir: Voir, Pohlenz , ch. Venise, Rome, Amsterdam et Livourne. Le projet cultu- taristes. Ceci trace une cartes. Bibliographie Arendt, Hannah Es bleibt die Muttersprache.

Ethnic Groups and Bound- servazioni preliminari sul rapporto tra arme- aries. The Social Organization of Culture Dif- no ban e greco logos e sue elaborazioni nel ference. Concezioni antropologiche nel mon- 64 Contin. Le Crime de Si- Dadoyan, Seta The Armenians in the Me- lence. Seventh to Fourteenth Centuries. The Armenian Review, 34, Journal of the Society for Venise: Imprimerie de Saint-Lazare, Armenian Studies, 19 2 , Goshgarian and Jeff Fort.

Le deuil de la philologie. En- Pohlenz, Max Stanford Uni- Said, Edward , Orientalismo. La Porta, Sergio Strategies of Co-Existence amongst lism. Christians and Muslims in the Thirteenth Strohmeyer, Virgil Wissenschaftlicher Verlag menological Philosophical Tradition. Venice and New Julfa. Lo studio delle in- Beihammer, Alexander D. Zekiyan, Boghos Levon di Mechitar del mondo e della Chiesa: Dagli Sheriman Zekiyan, Boghos Levon The Armenian a Mechitar: Internazionale Venezia, ottobre Zekiyan, Boghos Levon La dialettica tra Venezia: Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere Valore e contingenza.

Dalla fenomenologia ed Arti, Kouymjian, dalle dialettiche antagoniste verso una inte- D.

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Editrice ens als Vorblider kutureller Inkarnation, be- Veneta, Seibt, Zekiyan, Boghos Levon Largely neglected by historians of architecture, The Ruins of Ani nevertheless offers an extraordinary account of the city and its monuments. Many conferences and the Turkish and Armenian Republics, in the workshops have focused on Ani; the virtualani. While access to the site was restricted reports on its monuments. Originally published in Western Armenian many dating from the tenth to thirteenth centu- in Constantinople by the Y. Whether or not we are Ruins of Ani was not, to my knowledge, re- able to refute or confirm these remarks, they issued after its initial publication, and judging highlight the importance of pursuing every from the scarcity of copies available, its print- known source on Ani from before the destruc- run was modest.

Nevertheless, it has earned tive events of the twentieth century. They also increasing attention in recent years. It has ap- suggest that even after centuries of interest in peared in Turkish translation Usta, Hazaryan Ani, surprises still await the researcher. These travellers, and the excavations in particular. Nevertheless, it is wrench- es, above all Henry F.

Yet Ruins should be studied both al albums of Garabed Basmadjian and Ar- for what it reveals about the early historiography shag Fetvajian The main sources used are listed in the bibliography. As is well known, however, figural representa- Like many of his contemporaries, Balakian tion is commonplace in medieval Armenian ar- was also interested in the relationship between chitecture, whether in two or three dimensions. San Mar- every year.

That Balakian mentions the dark interi- primordial impulse, rather than a historically ors of the churches suggests that rather than conditioned product Balakian , The subject His Armenian translation of Lynch, moreover, of Armenian aniconism, including its possible actively reworks and edits the original English prehistory in medieval Armenian treatises and text, a project that deserves historiographical church councils, and its relations to the histo- study in its own right. Der Nersessian ; Eastmond , ; ence to the role of human figures in Armenian Rapti , See Strzy- gowski and Maranci Yet entirely to disregard Balakian would be unwise, both in light of contemporary and subsequent looting of the site which Balakian himself records , and of course the almost total disappearance of the contents of the Ani museums.

Further, Balakian Figure 1. Ani Cathedral, interior towards East. It may be that Balakian confused in of the structure, invisible to the naked eye, but his notes this church with the much larger Gag- verifiable by intrepid climbers Photo by the Author published text, and because the sentence reads the evidence is lost. Another passage in Ruins is not so easily at- tributable to accident.

In fact, there are only ten the Armenian alphabet. Consequently we can fig. Photo by the Author fashion images of flowers and animals on from inspecting my own detailed photographs stones. Balakian , 35 15 taken at the church over multiple years. Balakian , 48 19 not appear on Armenian churches in alphabetic sequence, nor do they draw exclusively from the Like those of the church of the Holy Apostles, Armenian alphabet, but assume various geomet- these birds are also unattested in the literature, ric and diagrammatic, as well as Greek-alphabetic and cannot be found at the site or in archaeolog- forms.

They appear elsewhere at Ani, certainly: The church has long forms a compelling parallel for what Balakian earned the attention of scholars, both for its describes: Yet nowhere, to my knowledge, is men- prototype, the aforementioned seventh-century tion of what Balakian claims to have seen there: The visitor is amazed at what care and skill There, magnificent carved birds once roosted, these massive monolithic stones were raised precisely as Balakian describes, on the four on these high walls; as in the Gagkashen capitals under the dome, their wings outspread church of Grigor, here too there were beau- fig.

This is unlikely; moreover, given the nian architecture; yet Balakian mentions these much better state of preservation of the archae- not once, but again in his more detailed discus- ology at Ani in , the difficult circumstances sion of the church, when he writes that of the excavations and the upheaval of the fol- lowing decades, it would be rash to dismiss this on the gradually eroding upper [two] stories of account out of hand. Balakian brackets added. According to Nikolai Marr, account of the contents of the aforementioned the model was already broken upon discovery, Ani Museum.

Much of this report can be ver- with only its lower part intact. This is seeming- ified by the and catalogues of Ani, ly confirmed by excavation photographs, which by early photographs, and by existing objects show the careful and elaborate design of the today in the Historical Museum in Yerevan see model, with its exterior arcade and projecting for example Marr ; Orbeli a and b.

For this reason, it has been easy a beautiful example of Armenian art of the to ascertain the original architectural style of tenth century. As we can see in the photograph, this ruined church. Near this statue, there is a miniature merous windows and carvings which bear the model of the St. Gregory Church which was mark of special care, and it is now in a glass found undamaged and is now placed high up case at the museum of Ani. The statue of Gagik on the wall. It is a fine piece of work and thus shows him a long kaftan with wide sleeves, a appears to be the work of an accomplished art- wide turban on his head and a tassel hang- ist.

After Strzygowski, , 55 fig. A more sobering possibility also description of the vitrine sheltering the image exists: Another early photograph, showing but holding a complete, three-tiered model of the Nikolai Marr in the museum, confirms that at church. A three-dimensional reproduction of the least at one point, the statue of Gagik and the statue now held at the Historical Museum in model were placed on adjacent walls; Gagik in Yerevan was also created, and is also attribut- a glass vitrine, and the model resting on a shelf ed to Poltoratski Kavtaradze , It is not impossible that the mod- confused it with the original stone model.

I thank Steven Sim for bringing it to my attention.

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And would Balakian, himself an engi- Finally, as I have discussed elsewhere, Urartian neer, be incapable of differentiating between a stelae were often reused in medieval Armenia modern copy and medieval original? Architec- within the medieval strata Maranci a. I have elsewhere examined the medieval period certainly allows for various the complicated archaeology and reconstruction occurrences of Latinity.

If Balakian Within the museum, Balakian writes, are were right about the Latin inscriptions, the al- ready impressive range of epigraphic languages small pieces of rock bearing Assyrian cunei- known from Ani could be expanded yet further form inscriptions, as well as many large and Eastmond Cuneiform presumably Urartian of the excavated materials of Ani have simply rather than Assyrian is not attested, however, vanished. Marr reports the discov- ed with the advance of Turkish troops towards ery of Urartian grave goods; additionally, there Alexandropol mod.

There are ing protests about the relocation of cuneiform reports of a train car packed with antiquities, inscriptions found at Ani Pravilova , In light of this uncertainty, and the the Kars basin was firmly under Urartian control. Had the museum been moved to tors from many nations who visit Ani will never Petersburg, however, many of the conjectures have the opportunity nor the means to visit the raised in the present essay about the archaeolog- museum in Petersburg. If the Academy is going ical record would probably be unnecessary. It is to the previous scholarly consensus.

Further- as yet neglected or unpublished, of travellers to more the Russian government should not take Ani during the Russian period. New Discoveries in Ani. Mekhi- Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 27 1 , Mijnadaryan hay char- Azatyan, Vardan Germa- Basmadjian, Garabed Early Twentieth Century Germany. Le Correspondant, 15 March. The Ruins of Ani: A Beginning to the Year World Architectural Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 68, Heritage of a Medieval Armenian Capital. Leu- Marr, Nikolai Saint Peter- Der Nersessian, Sirarpie Armeni- in Russian and Armenian.

Imprimerie Orientaliste, Sources and the Excavations of the Site of the , The History of the Nobility of Ani, or, Three bis zum Catalogue of the Ani Muse- Schnell und Steiner, Cambri- Orbeli, Iosef b. Catalogue of the Ani Muse- dge: Erevan Hamalsarani Hratara- ical Commission in Russian.

The Millen- Corpus Inscriptionum Armenicarum, vol. Pitton de Tournefort, Joseph Researches in Asia Mi- voyage du Levant. Ab Imperio, 1, vol. Between Islam and Byzan- Rapti, Ioanna Actes du colloque of Medieval Armenian Rulership. Stora- Kazaryan, Armen Das Etschmiadsin— Maranci, Christina Constructions of Race and Na- Strzygowski, Josef Die Baukunst der Ar- tion. Hebrew University Ar- menier und Europa.

Firmin Medieval City of Ani: Journal of Usta, Satenik; Hazaryan, Anahid trans. Through the Eyes of Vardanyan, Edda, ed. Amidst the growing waves of contemporary imperialist and nationalist sentiments in the nineteenth-early twentieth centuries, the interest in Armenian miniature painting commenced almost simultaneously in four different intellectual milieus — Russian, German-speaking, French, and Armenian — each approaching the subject from its own perspective and motivated by issues specific to the given cultural-po- litical realm.

Additionally, the citations listed here provide a bibliography of Armenian manuscript catalogues published prior to The scholarly study of miniature too strict. Indeed, researchers who will be dis- painting, and medieval Armenian art in general, cussed below under each of these sub-headings commenced in the mid-nineteenth century and were not merely working in some sort of isola- emerged among the scholars working in diverse tion within their home countries, but they often parts of Europe, the Russian and the Ottoman travelled and, moreover, were well interconnect- Empires.

While the title of this essay may appear ed with scholars and institutions of other coun- to stress the heritage of the Armenians as be- tries as well. We may distinguish four be ignored. This paper1 will the controversial but influential Austrian art explore how in each of these intellectual milieus historian, reflects perfectly the international we may trace different concerns and mentality academic network that this scholar was able to of the time, which played a great role in shaping create owing to his multiple contacts and his our understanding of the subject in question.

However, im- of such global networks among scholars of the pact of different ideological, political and cul- time, we might find it difficult to document an tural realities that each scholar experienced equanimous and universally respectful disposi- in his intellectual milieu cannot be neglected, tion in the work of these early scholars towards especially when one documents a number of all cultures and arts they treated. These authors profoundly different interpretations for a single lived and worked in a century when concepts of inheritance.

The cases, country of origin.

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Aleksej Uvarov and Vladimir These general remarks are applicable also Stasov were among the first researchers to ded- when we look at the study of medieval Armenian icate extensive articles on the decorations of miniature painting. Thus, the French explorer Armenian manuscripts and to treat them from Jules Mourier, whose relevant publications are an artistic point of view.

Count Aleksej Uvarov, who authored sies, opened up a new horizon in the history of the very first article on Armenian miniature Armenian, and Christian art in general, stim- painting, was the founder of Russian Archaeo- ulating a still unceasing interest in this field. No less remarkable was the involvement scripts scattered all over the world. The value of Armenian philanthropic organisations and of some of these publications produced in the wealthy Armenian benefactors, who, based in nineteenth and beginning twentieth centuries different countries stretching from Egypt to the becomes even more precious in the light of the Caucasus, sponsored the education of hundreds afterlives of many manuscripts and artworks, of Armenian students in European and Russian which are now lost forever or whose wherea- universities.

Their patronage often covered also bouts are unknown. For the armenophile movement in France in the nineteenth and beginning twentieth centuries, see also the contributions in Mouradian Rather, it attempts to outline the ide- , This short-term research was however 2 Imperial Russia and Illustrations enough for the Russian diplomat and scholar to of Medieval Armenian Manuscripts draw sufficient conclusions regarding the illus- trations of these manuscripts, in the majority of which he identified Byzantine style and images. The new Count Sergej Uvarov , the Minister lands of the Russian Empire attracted the atten- of Public Education, who was also the father of tion of scholars working in imperial institutions, Aleksej Uvarov.

For Sergej Uvarov and his ideology, see: Whittaker ; Zorin , ; Ivanov , Clay , ; Rakitin , It is worth citing in line with its expansive ambitions and with its a passage from Stasov to demonstrate the grist desire to maintain inner unity. This ideology is had a strong influence on Russian art during precisely reflected in the study of arts of differ- its formative period, and today when studying ent ethnicities, which were seen as parts of the the first periods of Russian art, be it architec- same nation.

In the majority of a strong argument to substantiate this assimi- cases, especially in Russian architecture, the lation. Similarly, Viktor Rozen and his disciples, initial influences were not only specifically who later became renowned orientalists, were Byzantine but also Armenian-Byzantine and set off in search of Arabic influence on Byzan- Georgian-Byzantine Stasov , tium by studying Oriental and Muslim commu- nities within the empire. By that time, the ideology of thus providing an interpretative paradigm that having a national art, which would also comprise fit comfortably with the Byzantine-oriented the cultural heritage of the newcomers, gradu- search for the origins of Russian religiosity and ally became dominant within the expanded bor- culture.

Yet, by becoming more closely ac- sented independent artistic style. Stasov stated bians and Bulgarians would not be enough to ex- that it was this understanding that led him to plain all ornamental forms of our manuscripts. Stasov , I-II communities, apparently in order to ignore its apostolicity. Indeed, in Armenian catholicos with some privileges and the six-volume collection of Russian Antiquities, authority, in the s this attitude changed in jointly prepared by Ivan Tolstoj and Nikodim accordance with more intensified and systemat- Kondakov,9 the thousand-years heritage of var- ic russification polities within the empire.

The the Armenian and Byzantine churches, the con- schools operated by the Armenian church which cept of pan-Orthodoxy that underpinned Russian were also serving as public schools were forced scholarship was not suitable when approaching to close, later to be reopened in , after im- the medieval heritage of the Armenians. While plementing specific modifications to teaching Georgian, Byzantine and Russian churches programs and methods, in which knowledge of were essentially in agreement concerning doc- the Russian language became obligatory Sarafi- trine, the Armenian church remained isolated an , ; Suny , 36, 45, With the decree of tion of the Chalcedon Council This point, June 12, issued by Emperor Nikolaj II, the however, did not seem to matter much, at least property of the Armenian church was confiscat- in the s.

Since the incorporation of East- ed, and the Armenian schools were closed again ern Armenia into the Russian Empire, the re- Sarafian , The Russian emperor was menian church, the latter was still regarded as actively engaged in the election and approval having an antigovernmental position. In light of of the catholicos of all Armenians. Tolz , ; Foletti , ; Foletti , In chapter dedicated to Byzantine art, which, for an explanatory letter addressed to Ivan Schnaase, had played a particular role in the Borgman, the rector of the Saint Petersburg Im- formation of not only Armenian and Russian arts perial University, the Deputy Minister of Educa- but also of the art of the Germanic people.

He felt necessary to assure, among oth- Schnaase , As a consequence, Armenian medieval art, architecture in particular, was in- It is impossible not to notice that by creating terpreted as having an idiosyncratic style, which extreme difficulties for the graduate students also inspired neighbouring Georgian architec- of Armenian seminaries to enter Russian uni- ture , The earliest studies on Armenian miniature painting is closely linked also with the name of Josef Strzygowski Klin- genburg , Azatyan , , Cina [ carta geografica ].

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