Ali: The Official Portrait of the Greatest

French sage-femme midwife Suzanne Voilquin writes of assisting during the cholera epidemic of Venereal diseases, especially syphilis, were common among soldiers and smallpox outbreaks led to high childhood mortality rates. Clot Bey argued that female-provided health care for women and children was crucial to maintain a healthy population. The school of medicine for women followed a French model. The first two years of training provided Arabic literacy in order to communicate with patients.

The following four included training in: Students were provided housing, food, clothes and a monthly allowance from the state. Graduates served at the Civil Hospital in Cairo or at health centres throughout Egypt. Some stayed at the school to serve as instructors. Once married, hakimas were given the title of Effendi , the rank of second lieutenant, and a monthly salary of piasters. Licensed hakimas treated women and children, providing vaccinations and delivering children. They served a fundamental role in reducing the incidence of smallpox during the 19th century by vaccinating approximately children a month in the Civil Hospital.

In this respect, hakimas operated in legal setting. Their examination was used as evidence in cases involving unnatural death, suspected premarital loss of virginity, or miscarriage. Although one task of the hakimas was overseeing childbirth, the majority of the population continued to use the dayas. A significant issue was recruitment of students. Egyptian culture at the time opposed the education of women. Contemporary and modern historians have viewed the creation of a school of medicine for women and the position of hakima as an example of modernization and reform for women under Muhammad Ali.

Furthermore, the hakimas allowed for increased state control over social life. This is observed in the use of hakimas to collect statistics on childbirth, either personally or through dayas, as well as in the cases where a hakima was used to examine a woman. In the s, Muhammad Ali sent the first educational "mission" of Egyptian students to Europe. This contact resulted in literature that is considered the dawn of the Arabic literary renaissance, known as the Nahda.

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To support the modernization of industry and the military, Muhammad Ali set up a number of schools in various fields where French texts were studied. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi supervised translations from French to Arabic on topics ranging from sociology and history to military technology, and these translations have been considered the second great translation movement, after the first from Greek into Arabic.

Among his personal interests was the accumulation and breeding of Arabian horses. In horses obtained as taxes and tribute , Muhammad Ali recognised the unique characteristics and careful attention to bloodlines of the horses bred by the Bedouin , particularly by the Anazeh in Syria and those bred in the Nejd. While his immediate successor had minimal interest in the horse breeding program, his grandson, who became Abbas I shared this interest and further built upon his work. He used several new strategies to ensure the success of his new military. First new recruits were isolated from the environment they were used to.

They began housing soldiers in barracks, leadership enforced a strict regime of surveillance, roll call was done several times a day, and use of corporal punishment to ensure the new fighting force grew to become a strong disciplined military. In order to accomplish this Muhammad Ali relied on the Bedouins to guard the troops that were sent to the training camps. The holy cities of Mecca , and Medina had been captured by the House of Saud , who had recently embraced a literalist Hanbali interpretation of Islam. Armed with their newfound religious zeal, the Saudis began conquering parts of Arabia.

This culminated in the capture of the Hejaz region by Muhammad Ali in turn appointed his son, Tusun , to lead a military expedition in The campaign was initially turned back in Arabia; however, a second attack was launched in that succeeded in recapturing Hejaz.

Ali - Hajeski, Nancy J. - | HPB

While the campaign was successful, the power of the Saudis was not broken. They continued to harass Ottoman and Egyptian forces from the central Nejd region of the Peninsula. Consequently, Muhammad Ali dispatched another of his sons, Ibrahim, at the head of another army to finally rout the Saudis. After a two-year campaign, the Saudis were crushed and most of the Saudi family was captured. The family leader, Abdullah ibn Saud , was sent to Istanbul, and executed.

Muhammad Ali of Egypt

Muhammad Ali next turned his attention to military campaigns independent of the Porte , beginning with the Sudan which he viewed as a valuable addition resource of territory, gold, and slaves. The Sudan at the time had no real central authority, as since the 18th century many petty kingdoms and tribal sheikhdoms had seceded from the declining Sultanate of Sennar , fighting each other with Medieval weaponry.

In Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 5, troops commanded by his third son, Ismail and Abidin Bey , south into Sudan with the intent of conquering the territory and subjugating it to his authority. Ultimately, the superiority of the Egyptian troops and firearms ensured the defeat of the Shaigiya and the subsequent conquest of the Sudan. Ali now had an outpost from which he could expand to the source of the Nile in Ethiopia , and Uganda. His administration captured slaves from the Nuba Mountains , and west and south Sudan, all incorporated into a foot regiment known as the Gihadiya which were composed of the recently defeated Shaigiya who now took service under the invaders in exchange for keeping their domains.

Ali's reign in Sudan, and that of his immediate successors, is remembered in Sudan as brutal and heavy-handed, contributing to the popular independence struggle of the self-proclaimed Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad , in While Muhammad Ali was expanding his authority into Africa, the Ottoman Empire was being challenged by ethnic rebellions in its European territories.

The rebellion in the Greek provinces of the Ottoman Empire began in The Ottoman army proved ineffectual in its attempts to put down the revolt as ethnic violence spread as far as Constantinople. With his own army proving ineffective, Sultan Mahmud II offered Muhammad Ali the island of Crete in exchange for his support in putting down the revolt. Muhammad Ali sent 16, soldiers, transports, and 63 escort vessels under command of his son, Ibrahim Pasha. On 20 October at the Battle of Navarino , while under the command of Muharram Bey, the Ottoman representative, the entire Egyptian navy was sunk by the European Allied fleet, under the command of Admiral Edward Codrington.

If the Porte was not in the least prepared for this confrontation, Muhammad Ali was even less prepared for the loss of his highly competent, expensively assembled and maintained navy. With its fleet essentially destroyed, Egypt had no way to support its forces in Greece and was forced to withdraw. Ultimately the campaign cost Muhammad Ali his navy and yielded no tangible gains. In compensation for this loss, Muhammad Ali asked the Porte for the territory of Syria. The Ottomans were indifferent to the request; the Sultan himself asked blandly what would happen if Syria was given over and Muhammad Ali later deposed.

To compensate for his and Egypt's losses, the wheels for the conquest of Syria were set in motion. For not only had Syria abundant natural resources, it also had a thriving international trading community with well-developed markets throughout the Levant ; in addition, it would be a captive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Yet perhaps most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan. For the sake of appearance on the world stage, a pretext for the invasion was vital.

Ultimately, the excuse for the expedition was a quarrel with Abdullah Pasha of Acre. The Egyptians overran most of Syria and its hinterland with ease. The strongest and only really significant resistance was put up at the port city of Acre. The Egyptian force eventually captured the city after a six-month siege, which lasted from 3 November to 27 May Unrest on the Egyptian home front increased dramatically during the course of the siege.

Ali was forced to squeeze Egypt more and more in order to support his campaign and his people resented the increased burden. After the fall of Acre, the Egyptian army marched north into Anatolia. There were now no military obstacles between Ibrahim's forces and Constantinople itself. Through the course of the campaign, Muhammad Ali paid particular focus to the European powers. Fearing another intervention that would reverse all his gains, he proceeded slowly and cautiously. From this position, the European powers brokered a negotiated solution in May known as the Convention of Kutahya.

The peace agreement fell short, however, of granting Muhammad Ali an independent kingdom for himself, leaving him wanting. Sensing that Muhammad Ali was not content with his gains, the sultan attempted to pre-empt further action against the Ottoman Empire by offering him hereditary rule in Egypt and Arabia if he withdrew from Syria and Crete and renounced any desire for full independence. Within the Empire, however, both sides were gearing for war.

Ibrahim already had a sizable force in Syria. In an echo of the Battle of Konya, Constantinople was again left vulnerable to Ali's forces. A further blow to the Ottomans was the defection of their fleet to Muhammad Ali.

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At this point, Ali and Ibrahim began to argue about which course to follow; Ibrahim favoured conquering the Ottoman capital and demanding the imperial seat while Muhammad Ali was inclined simply to demand numerous concessions of territory and political autonomy for himself and his family.

At this point, the European powers again intervened see Oriental Crisis of On 15 July , the British Government, which had colluded with Austria , Prussia , and Russia to sign the Convention of London , offered Muhammad Ali hereditary rule of Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire if he withdrew from the Syrian hinterland and the coastal regions of Mount Lebanon. Muhammad Ali hesitated, believing he had support from France. His hesitation proved costly. France eventually backed down as King Louis-Philippe did not want his country to find itself involved and isolated in a war against the other powers, especially at a time when he also had to deal with the Rhine crisis.

So British naval forces moved against Syria, and Alexandria. After the British , and Austrian navies blockaded the Nile delta coastline, shelled Beirut 11 September , and after Acre had capitulated 3 November , Muhammad Ali agreed to the terms of the Convention on 27 November These terms included renouncing his claims over Crete, and Hejaz, downsizing his navy, and reducing his standing army to 18, men, provided that he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan: After , fast on the heels of the Syrian debacle, and the treaty of Balta Liman , which forced the Egyptian government to tear down its import barriers, and to give up its monopolies, Muhammad Ali's mind became increasingly clouded and tended towards paranoia.

Whether it was genuine senility or the effects of the silver nitrate he had been given years before to treat an attack of dysentery remains a subject of debate. Tax arrears came to 14,, piastres [c] out of a total estimated tax of 75,, pts. It did little, if any, good. The resulting rage was far beyond what any had been expected, and it took six full days for a tenuous peace to take hold.

A year later while Ibrahim, progressively crippled by rheumatic pains and tuberculosis he was beginning to cough up blood , was sent to Italy to take the waters, Muhammad Ali, in , travelled to Constantinople. There he approached the Sultan, expressed his fears, and made his peace, explaining: How will they keep Egypt? It soon came to the point where his son and heir, the mortally ailing Ibrahim, had no choice but to travel to Constantinople and request that the Sultan recognize him ruler of Egypt and Sudan even though his father was still alive.

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However, on the ship returning home, Ibrahim, gripped by fever and guilt, succumbed to seizures and hallucinations. He survived the journey but within six months was dead. He was succeeded by his nephew Tosun's son Abbas I. By this time Muhammad Ali had become so ill and senile that he was not informed of his son's death. Lingering a few months more, Muhammad Ali died at Ras el-Tin Palace in Alexandria on 2 August , and ultimately was buried in the imposing mosque he had commissioned in the Cairo Citadel.

The old inhabitants remember and talk of the chaos and anarchy from which he rescued this country; the younger compare his energetic rule with the capricious, vacillating government of his successor; all classes whether Turk, or Arab, not only feel, but do not hesitate to say openly that the prosperity of Egypt has died with Muhammad Ali In truth my Lord, it cannot be denied, that Muhammad Ali, notwithstanding all his faults was a great man. The prevailing historical view of Muhammad Ali is as the 'Father of Modern Egypt', being the first ruler since the Ottoman conquest in to permanently divest the Porte of its power in Egypt.

While failing to achieve formal independence for Egypt during his lifetime, he was successful in laying the foundation for a modern Egyptian state. In the process of building an army to defend and expand his realm, he built a central bureaucracy, an educational system that allowed social mobility, and an economic base that included an agricultural cash crop, cotton, and military-based manufacturing. His efforts established his progeny as the rulers of Egypt and Sudan for nearly years and rendered Egypt a de facto independent state.

Others, however, view him not as a builder, but rather as a conqueror. He was of Albanian origin rather than Egyptian, and throughout his reign, Turkish was the official language of his court rather than Arabic. Some argue that he exploited Egyptian manpower and resources for his own personal ends, not Egyptian national ones, with the manpower requirements that he placed on Egyptians being particularly onerous.

Much of the historical debate regarding Muhammad Ali reflects the simultaneous political struggles which occurred in Egypt during the 20th century.

Fuad I of Egypt in the s sponsored the collection, arrangement, and translation of the available historical documents relating to his predecessors, which became the Royal Archives of Egypt. These Royal Archives represented the primary and, in the case of some important works, [62] the only source of information for Egyptian history until the sharia court records became available in the s.

Fuad's portrayal of Muhammad Ali as a nationalist and benevolent monarch therefore heavily influenced the historical debate. Later, Nasser and his revolutionary republican regime promoted an alternative narrative which portrayed Muhammad Ali as the nationalist founder of modern Egypt but also an ambitious monarch with little regard for his people whose policies ultimately benefited himself and his dynasty at the expense of Egypt.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Ottoman Albanian commander and Wali of Egypt and Sudan. Muhammad Ali's seizure of power. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.

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